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chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the elements that make up matter to the compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, proper ...
, isomers are
molecule A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and b ...
s or
polyatomic ion A polyatomic ion, also known as a molecular ion, is a covalent bonded set of two or more atoms, or of a metal complex, that can be considered to behave as a single unit and that has a net charge that is not zero. The term molecule may or may no ...
s with identical molecular formulae – that is, same number of
atom Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons. Only the most common variety of hydrogen has no neutrons. Every solid, liquid, gas, a ...
s of each element – but distinct arrangements of atoms in space. Isomerism is existence or possibility of isomers. Isomers do not necessarily share similar chemical or physical properties. Two main forms of isomerism are structural or constitutional isomerism, in which ''
bond Bond or bonds may refer to: Common meanings * Bond (finance), a type of debt security * Bail bond, a commercial third-party guarantor of surety bonds in the United States * Chemical bond, the attraction of atoms, ions or molecules to form chemical ...
s'' between the atoms differ; and stereoisomerism or spatial isomerism, in which the bonds are the same but the ''relative positions'' of the atoms differ. Isomeric relationships form a hierarchy. Two chemicals might be the same constitutional isomer, but upon deeper analysis be stereoisomers of each other. Two molecules that are the same stereoisomer as each other might be in different conformational forms or be different isotopologues. The depth of analysis depends on the field of study or the chemical and physical properties of interest. The English word "isomer" () is a
back-formation In etymology, back-formation is the process or result of creating a new word via inflection, typically by removing or substituting actual or supposed affixes from a lexical item, in a way that expands the number of lexemes associated with the ...
from "isomeric",Merriam-Webster
"isomer"
online dictionary entry. Accessed on 2020-08-26
which was borrowed through
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
''isomerisch''Merriam-Webster
"isomeric"
online dictionary entry. Accessed on 2020-08-26
from Swedish ; which in turn was coined from Greek ἰσόμερoς , with roots = "equal", = "part".


Structural isomers

Structural isomers have the same number of atoms of each element (hence the same molecular formula), but the atoms are connected in distinct ways.


Example:

For example, there are three distinct compounds with the molecular formula C3H8O: The first two isomers shown of C3H8O are propanols, that is,
alcohols In chemistry, an alcohol is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl () functional group bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term ''alcohol'' originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is ...
derived from
propane Propane () is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula . It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as ...
. Both have a chain of three carbon atoms connected by single bonds, with the remaining carbon valences being filled by seven
hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-to ...
atoms and by a
hydroxyl In chemistry, a hydroxy or hydroxyl group is a functional group with the chemical formula and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom. In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydrox ...
group -OH comprising the
oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements ...
atom bound to a hydrogen atom. These two isomers differ on which carbon the hydroxyl is bound to: either to an extremity of the carbon chain propan-1-ol (1-propanol, ''n''-propyl alcohol, ''n''-propanol; I) or to the middle carbon propan-2-ol (2-propanol, isopropyl alcohol, isopropanol; II). These can be described by the condensed structural formulas H3C-CH2-CH2OH and H3C-CH(OH)-CH3. The third isomer of C3H8O is the
ether In organic chemistry, ethers are a class of compounds that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups. They have the general formula , where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups. Ethers can again ...
methoxyethane Methoxyethane, also known as ethyl methyl ether, is a colorless gaseous ether In organic chemistry, ethers are a class of compounds that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups. They have the general f ...
(ethyl-methyl-ether; III). Unlike the other two, it has the oxygen atom connected to two carbons, and all eight hydrogens bonded directly to carbons. It can be described by the condensed formula H3C-O-CH2-CH3. The alcohol "3-propanol" is not another isomer, since the difference between it and 1-propanol is not real; it is only the result of an arbitrary choice in the direction of numbering the carbons along the chain. For the same reason, "ethoxymethane" is the same molecule as methoxyethane, not another isomer. 1-Propanol and 2-propanol are examples of positional isomers, which differ by the position at which certain features, such as double bonds or
functional group In organic chemistry, a functional group is a substituent or moiety in a molecule that causes the molecule's characteristic chemical reactions. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reactions regardless of the r ...
s, occur on a "parent" molecule (propane, in that case).


Example:

There are also three structural isomers of the
hydrocarbon In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or ...
C3H4: In two of the isomers, the three carbon atoms are connected in an open chain, but in one of them ( propadiene or allene; I) the carbons are connected by two double bonds, while in the other propyne or methylacetylene, II) they are connected by a single bond and a
triple bond A triple bond in chemistry is a chemical bond between two atoms involving six bonding electrons instead of the usual two in a covalent single bond. Triple bonds are stronger than the equivalent single bonds or double bonds, with a bond order o ...
. In the third isomer (
cyclopropene Cyclopropene is an organic compound with the formula . It is the simplest cycloalkene. Because the ring is highly strained, cyclopropene is difficult to prepare and highly reactive. This colorless gas has been the subject for many fundamental st ...
; III) the three carbons are connected into a ring by two single bonds and a double bond. In all three, the remaining valences of the carbon atoms are satisfied by the four hydrogens. Again, note that there is only one structural isomer with a triple bond, because the other possible placement of that bond is just drawing the three carbons in a different order. For the same reason, there is only one cyclopropene, not three.


Tautomers

Tautomer Tautomers () are structural isomers (constitutional isomers) of chemical compounds that readily interconvert. The chemical reaction interconverting the two is called tautomerization. This conversion commonly results from the relocation of a hy ...
s are structural isomers which readily interconvert, so that two or more species co-exist in equilibrium such as H-X-Y=Z <=> X=Y-Z-H. Important examples are keto-enol tautomerism and the equilibrium between neutral and zwitterionic forms of an
amino acid Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although hundreds of amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the alpha-amino acids, which comprise proteins. Only 22 alpha ...
.


Resonance forms

The structure of some molecules is sometimes described as a
resonance Resonance describes the phenomenon of increased amplitude that occurs when the frequency of an applied periodic force (or a Fourier component of it) is equal or close to a natural frequency of the system on which it acts. When an oscil ...
between several apparently different structural isomers. The classical example is 1,2-dimethylbenzene (''o''-xylene), which is often described as a mix of the two apparently distinct structural isomers: However, neither of these two structures describes a real compound; they are fictions devised as a way to describe (by their "averaging" or "resonance") the actual delocalized bonding of ''o''-xylene, which is the single isomer of C8H10 with a
benzene Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms ...
core and two methyl groups in adjacent positions.


Stereoisomers

Stereoisomers have the same atoms or isotopes connected by bonds of the same type, but differ in their shapes – the relative positions of those atoms in space – apart from rotations and translations. In theory, one can imagine any arrangement in space of the atoms of a molecule or ion to be gradually changed to any other arrangement in infinitely many ways, by moving each atom along an appropriate path. However, changes in the positions of atoms will generally change the internal
energy In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, ''enérgeia'', “activity”) is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of ...
of a molecule, which is determined by the angles between bonds in each atom and by the distances between atoms (whether they are bonded or not). A
conformational isomer In chemistry, conformational isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism in which the isomers can be interconverted just by rotations about formally single bonds (refer to figure on single bond rotation). While any two arrangements of atoms in a molec ...
is an arrangement of the atoms of the molecule or ion for which the internal energy is a
local minimum In mathematical analysis, the maxima and minima (the respective plurals of maximum and minimum) of a function, known collectively as extrema (the plural of extremum), are the largest and smallest value of the function, either within a given ran ...
; that is, an arrangement such that any small changes in the positions of the atoms will increase the internal energy, and hence result in forces that tend to push the atoms back to the original positions. Changing the shape of the molecule from such an energy minimum A to another energy minimum B will therefore require going through configurations that have higher energy than A and B. That is, a conformation isomer is separated from any other isomer by an
energy barrier In chemistry and physics, activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that must be provided for compounds to result in a chemical reaction. The activation energy (''E''a) of a reaction is measured in joules per mole (J/mol), kilojoules pe ...
: the amount that must be temporarily added to the internal energy of the molecule in order to go through all the intermediate conformations along the "easiest" path (the one that minimizes that amount). A classic example of conformational isomerism is
cyclohexane Cyclohexane is a cycloalkane with the molecular formula . Cyclohexane is non-polar. Cyclohexane is a colorless, flammable liquid with a distinctive detergent-like odor, reminiscent of cleaning products (in which it is sometimes used). Cyclohe ...
.
Alkanes In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin (a historical trivial name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in ...
generally have minimum energy when the C-C-C angles are close to 110 degrees. Conformations of the cyclohexane molecule with all six carbon atoms on the same plane have a higher energy, because some or all the C-C-C angles must be far from that value (120 degrees for a regular hexagon). Thus the conformations which are local energy minima have the ring twisted in space, according to one of two patterns known as chair (with the carbons alternately above and below their mean plane) and
boat A boat is a watercraft of a large range of types and sizes, but generally smaller than a ship, which is distinguished by its larger size, shape, cargo or passenger capacity, or its ability to carry boats. Small boats are typically found on i ...
(with two opposite carbons above the plane, and the other four below it). If the energy barrier between two conformational isomers is low enough, it may be overcome by the random inputs of thermal energy that the molecule gets from interactions with the environment or from its own vibrations. In that case, the two isomers may as well be considered a single isomer, depending on the temperature and the context. For example, the two conformations of cyclohexane convert to each other quite rapidly at room temperature (in the liquid state), so that they are usually treated as a single isomer in chemistry. In some cases, the barrier can be crossed by quantum tunneling of the atoms themselves. This last phenomenon prevents the separation of stereoisomers of fluorochloroamine NHFCl or
hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound with the formula . In its pure form, it is a very pale blue liquid that is slightly more viscous than water. It is used as an oxidizer, bleaching agent, and antiseptic, usually as a dilute solution (3 ...
H2O2, because the two conformations with minimum energy interconvert in a few
picosecond A picosecond (abbreviated as ps) is a unit of time in the International System of Units (SI) equal to 10−12 or (one trillionth) of a second. That is one trillionth, or one millionth of one millionth of a second, or 0.000 000 000&nbs ...
s even at very low temperatures.Rowena Ball and John Brindley (2016): "The life story of hydrogen peroxide III: Chirality and physical effects at the dawn of life". ''Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres'', volume 46, pages 81–93 Conversely, the energy barrier may be so high that the easiest way to overcome it would require temporarily breaking and then reforming one or more bonds of the molecule. In that case, the two isomers usually are stable enough to be isolated and treated as distinct substances. These isomers are then said to be different configurational isomers or "configurations" of the molecule, not just two different conformations.Vallurupalli S. R. Rao (1998):
Methods of conformational analysis
. Chapter 2 in ''Conformation of Carbohydrates''. 409 pages.
(However, one should be aware that the terms "conformation" and "configuration" are largely synonymous outside of chemistry, and their distinction may be controversial even among chemists.Anatoly M Belostotskii (2015):
Conformer and conformation
, chapter 2 of ''Conformational Concept For Synthetic Chemist's Use: Principles And in Lab Exploitation''. 580 pages. .
) Interactions with other molecules of the same or different compounds (for example, through
hydrogen bond In chemistry, a hydrogen bond (or H-bond) is a primarily electrostatic force of attraction between a hydrogen (H) atom which is covalently bound to a more electronegative "donor" atom or group (Dn), and another electronegative atom bearing a l ...
s) can significantly change the energy of conformations of a molecule. Therefore, the possible isomers of a compound in solution or in its liquid and solid phases many be very different from those of an isolated molecule in vacuum. Even in the gas phase, some compounds like
acetic acid Acetic acid , systematically named ethanoic acid , is an acidic, colourless liquid and organic compound with the chemical formula (also written as , , or ). Vinegar is at least 4% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main componen ...
will exist mostly in the form of dimers or larger groups of molecules, whose configurations may be different from those of the isolated molecule.


Enantiomers

Two compounds are said to be
enantiomer In chemistry, an enantiomer ( /ɪˈnænti.əmər, ɛ-, -oʊ-/ ''ih-NAN-tee-ə-mər''; from Ancient Greek ἐνάντιος ''(enántios)'' 'opposite', and μέρος ''(méros)'' 'part') – also called optical isomer, antipode, or optical anti ...
s if their molecules are mirror images of each other, that cannot be made to coincide only by rotations or translations – like a left hand and a right hand. The two shapes are said to be chiral. A classical example is
bromochlorofluoromethane Bromochlorofluoromethane or fluorochlorobromomethane, is a chemical compound and trihalomethane derivative with the chemical formula C H Br Cl F. As one of the simplest possible stable chiral compounds, it is useful for fundamental research into t ...
(CHFClBr). The two enantiomers can be distinguished, for example, by whether the path F->Cl->Br turns clockwise or counterclockwise as seen from the hydrogen atom. In order to change one conformation to the other, at some point those four atoms would have to lie on the same plane – which would require severely straining or breaking their bonds to the carbon atom. The corresponding energy barrier between the two conformations is so high that there is practically no conversion between them at room temperature, and they can be regarded as different configurations. The compound
chlorofluoromethane Chlorofluoromethane or Freon 31 is the hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) with the formula CH2ClF. It is a colorless, odorless, flammable gas. Uses Pyrolysis of a mixture of dichlorofluoromethane and chlorofluoromethane gives hexafluorobenzene: :3 C ...
CH2ClF, in contrast, is not chiral: the mirror image of its molecule is also obtained by a half-turn about a suitable axis. Another example of a chiral compound is 2,3-pentadiene H3C-CH=C=CH-CH3 a hydrocarbon that contains two overlapping double bonds. The double bonds are such that the three middle carbons are in a straight line, while the first three and last three lie on perpendicular planes. The molecule and its mirror image are not superimposable, even though the molecule has an axis of symmetry. The two enantiomers can be distinguished, for example, by the right-hand rule. This type of isomerism is called axial isomerism. Enantiomers behave identically in chemical reactions, except when reacted with chiral compounds or in the presence of chiral catalysts, such as most
enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...
s. For this latter reason, the two enantiomers of most chiral compounds usually have markedly different effects and roles in living organisms. In
biochemistry Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology and ...
and food science, the two enantiomers of a chiral molecule – such as
glucose Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, u ...
– are usually identified, and treated as very different substances. Each enantiomer of a chiral compound typically rotates the plane of polarized light that passes through it. The rotation has the same magnitude but opposite senses for the two isomers, and can be a useful way of distinguishing and measuring their concentration in a solution. For this reason, enantiomers were formerly called "optical isomers". However, this term is ambiguous and is discouraged by the
IUPAC The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations working for the advancement of the chemical sciences, especially by developing nomenclature and terminology. It is ...
. Stereoisomers that are not enantiomers are called diastereomers. Some diastereomers may contain chiral center, some not. Some enantiomer pairs (such as those of ''trans''-cyclooctene) can be interconverted by internal motions that change bond lengths and angles only slightly. Other pairs (such as CHFClBr) cannot be interconverted without breaking bonds, and therefore are different configurations.


Cis-trans isomerism

A double bond between two carbon atoms forces the remaining four bonds (if they are single) to lie on the same plane, perpendicular to the plane of the bond as defined by its π orbital. If the two bonds on each carbon connect to different atoms, two distinct conformations are possible, that differ from each other by a twist of 180 degrees of one of the carbons about the double bond. The classical example is dichloroethene C2H2Cl2, specifically the structural isomer Cl-HC=CH-Cl that has one chlorine bonded to each carbon. It has two conformational isomers, with the two chlorines on the same side or on opposite sides of the double bond's plane. They are traditionally called ''cis'' (from Latin meaning "on this side of") and ''trans'' ("on the other side of"), respectively; or ''Z'' and ''E'' in the
IUPAC The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations working for the advancement of the chemical sciences, especially by developing nomenclature and terminology. It is ...
recommended nomenclature. Conversion between these two forms usually requires temporarily breaking bonds (or turning the double bond into a single bond), so the two are considered different configurations of the molecule. More generally, ''cis''–''trans'' isomerism (formerly called "geometric isomerism") occurs in molecules where the relative orientation of two distinguishable functional groups is restricted by a somewhat rigid framework of other atoms. For example, in the cyclic alcohol
inositol Inositol, or more precisely ''myo''-inositol, is a carbocyclic sugar that is abundant in the brain and other mammalian tissues; it mediates cell signal transduction in response to a variety of hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors and ...
(CHOH)6 (a six-fold alcohol of cyclohexane), the six-carbon cyclic backbone largely prevents the hydroxyl -OH and the hydrogen -H on each carbon from switching places. Therefore, one has different configurational isomers depending on whether each hydroxyl is on "this side" or "the other side" of the ring's mean plane. Discounting isomers that are equivalent under rotations, there are nine isomers that differ by this criterion, and behave as different stable substances (two of them being enantiomers of each other). The most common one in nature (''myo''-inositol) has the hydroxyls on carbons 1, 2, 3 and 5 on the same side of that plane, and can therefore be called ''cis''-1,2,3,5-''trans''-4,6-cyclohexanehexol. And each of these ''cis''-''trans'' isomers can possibly have stable "chair" or "boat" conformations (although the barriers between these are significantly lower than those between different ''cis''-''trans'' isomers). ''Cis'' and ''trans'' isomers also occur in inorganic
coordination compound A coordination complex consists of a central atom or ion, which is usually metallic and is called the ''coordination centre'', and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions, that are in turn known as ''ligands'' or complexing agents. Man ...
s, such as
square planar The square planar molecular geometry in chemistry describes the stereochemistry (spatial arrangement of atoms) that is adopted by certain chemical compounds. As the name suggests, molecules of this geometry have their atoms positioned at the corne ...
MX2Y2 complexes and octahedral MX4Y2 complexes. For more complex organic molecules, the ''cis'' and ''trans'' labels are ambiguous. The IUPAC recommends a more precise labeling scheme, based on the CIP priorities for the bonds at each carbon atom.


Centers with non-equivalent bonds

More generally, atoms or atom groups that can form three or more non-equivalent single bonds (such as the
transition metal In chemistry, a transition metal (or transition element) is a chemical element in the d-block of the periodic table (groups 3 to 12), though the elements of group 12 (and less often group 3) are sometimes excluded. They are the elements that can ...
s in coordination compounds) may give rise to multiple stereoisomers when different atoms or groups are attached at those positions. The same is true if a center with six or more equivalent bonds has two or more substituents. For instance, in the compound PF4Cl, the bonds from the
phosphorus Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Ea ...
atom to the five
halogen The halogens () are a group in the periodic table consisting of five or six chemically related elements: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine (At), and tennessine (Ts). In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, this grou ...
s have approximately trigonal bipyramidal geometry. Thus two stereoisomers with that formula are possible, depending on whether the chlorine atom occupies one of the two "axial" positions, or one of the three "equatorial" positions. For the compound PF3Cl2, three isomers are possible, with zero, one, or two chlorines in the axial positions. As another example, a complex with a formula like MX3Y3, where the central atom M forms six bonds with octahedral geometry, has at least two facial–meridional isomers, depending on whether the three X bonds (and thus also the three Y bonds) are directed at the three corners of one face of the octahedron (''fac'' isomer), or lie on the same equatorial or "meridian" plane of it (''mer'' isomer).


Rotamers and atropisomers

Two parts of a molecule that are connected by just one single bond can rotate about that bond. While the bond itself is indifferent to that rotation, attractions and repulsions between the atoms in the two parts normally cause the energy of the whole molecule to vary (and possibly also the two parts to deform) depending on the relative angle of rotation φ between the two parts. Then there will be one or more special values of φ for which the energy is at a local minimum. The corresponding conformations of the molecule are called rotational isomers or rotamers. Thus, for example, in an ethane molecule H3C-CH3, all the bond angles and length are narrowly constrained, except that the two
methyl In organic chemistry, a methyl group is an alkyl derived from methane, containing one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms, having chemical formula . In formulas, the group is often abbreviated as Me. This hydrocarbon group occurs in ...
groups can independently rotate about the C-C axis. Thus, even if those angles and distances are assumed fixed, there are infinitely many conformations for the ethane molecule, that differ by the relative angle φ of rotation between the two groups. The feeble repulsion between the hydrogen atoms in the two methyl groups causes the energy to minimized for three specific values of φ, 120° apart. In those configurations, the six planes H-C-C or C-C-H are 60° apart. Discounting rotations of the whole molecule, that configuration is a single isomer – the so-called ''staggered'' conformation. Rotation between the two halves of the molecule
1,2-dichloroethane The chemical compound 1,2-dichloroethane, commonly known as ethylene dichloride (EDC), is a chlorinated hydrocarbon. It is a colourless liquid with a chloroform-like odour. The most common use of 1,2-dichloroethane is in the production of vin ...
(ClH2C-CH2Cl also has three local energy minima, but they have different energies due to differences between the H-H, Cl-Cl, and H-Cl interactions. There are therefore three rotamers: a ''trans'' isomer where the two chlorines are on the same plane as the two carbons, but with oppositely directed bonds; and two ''gauche'' isomers, mirror images of each other, where the two -CH2Cl groups are rotated about 109° from that position. The computed energy difference between ''trans'' and ''gauche'' is ~1.5 kcal/mol, the barrier for the ~109° rotation from ''trans'' to ''gauche'' is ~5 kcal/mol, and that of the ~142° rotation from one ''gauche'' to its enantiomer is ~8 kcal/mol.Kenneth B. Wiberg and Mark A. Murcko (1987): "Rotational barriers. 1. 1,2-Dihaloethanes". ''Journal of Physical Chemistry'', volume 91, issue 13, pages 3616–3620. The situation for
butane Butane () or ''n''-butane is an alkane with the formula C4H10. Butane is a gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Butane is a highly flammable, colorless, easily liquefied gas that quickly vaporizes at room temperature. The name but ...
is similar, but with sightly lower ''gauche'' energies and barriers. If the two parts of the molecule connected by a single bond are bulky or charged, the energy barriers may be much higher. For example, in the compound biphenyl – two phenyl groups connected by a single bond – the repulsion between hydrogen atoms closest to the central single bond gives the fully planar conformation, with the two rings on the same plane, a higher energy than conformations where the two rings are skewed. In the gas phase, the molecule has therefore at least two rotamers, with the ring planes twisted by ±47°, which are mirror images of each other. The barrier between them is rather low (~8 kJ/mol).A. T. H. Lenstra, C. Van Alsenoy, K. Verhulst and H. J. Geise (1994): "Solids modelled by crystal field ab initio methods. 5. The phase transitions in biphenyl from a molecular point of view". ''Acta Crystallographica Section B'', volume B50, pages 96-106. This steric hindrance effect is more pronounced when those four hydrogens are replaced by larger atoms or groups, like chlorines or carboxyls. If the barrier is high enough for the two rotamers to be separated as stable compounds at room temperature, they are called atropisomers.


Topoisomers

Large molecules may have isomers that differ by the
topology In mathematics, topology (from the Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a geometric object that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, twisting, crumpling, and bending; that is, without closing ...
of their overall arrangement in space, even if there is no specific geometric constraint that separate them. For example, long chains may be twisted to form topologically distinct
knot A knot is an intentional complication in cordage which may be practical or decorative, or both. Practical knots are classified by function, including hitches, bends, loop knots, and splices: a ''hitch'' fastens a rope to another object; a ...
s, with interconversion prevented by bulky substituents or cycle closing (as in circular DNA and RNA
plasmid A plasmid is a small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. They are most commonly found as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules in bacteria; how ...
s). Some knots may come in mirror-image enantiomer pairs. Such forms are called topological isomers or topoisomers. Also, two or more such molecules may be bound together in a catenane by such topological linkages, even if there is no chemical bond between them. If the molecules are large enough, the linking may occur in multiple topologically distinct ways, constituting different isomers. Cage compounds, such as
helium Helium (from el, ἥλιος, helios, lit=sun) is a chemical element with the symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and the first in the noble gas group in the periodic ta ...
enclosed in
dodecahedrane Dodecahedrane is a chemical compound, a hydrocarbon with formula , whose carbon atoms are arranged as the vertices (corners) of a regular dodecahedron. Each carbon is bound to three neighbouring carbon atoms and to a hydrogen atom. This compound ...
(He@) and carbon peapods, are a similar type of topological isomerism involving molecules with large internal voids with restricted or no openings.Takahiro Iwamoto, Yoshiki Watanabe, Tatsuya Sadahiro, Takeharu Haino, and Shigeru Yamago (2011): "Size-selective encapsulation of C60 by 0ycloparaphenylene: Formation of the shortest fullerene-peapod". ''Angewandte Chemie International Edition'', volume 50, issue 36, pages 8342–8344.


Isotopes and spin


Isotopomers

Different isotopes of the same element can be considered as different kinds of atoms when enumerating isomers of a molecule or ion. The replacement of one or more atoms by their isotopes can create multiple structural isomers and/or stereoisomers from a single isomer. For example, replacing two atoms of common
hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-to ...
(^1 H ) by
deuterium Deuterium (or hydrogen-2, symbol or deuterium, also known as heavy hydrogen) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen (the other being protium, or hydrogen-1). The nucleus of a deuterium atom, called a deuteron, contains one proton and one ...
(^2 H , or D) on an ethane molecule yields two distinct structural isomers, depending on whether the substitutions are both on the same carbon (1,1-dideuteroethane, HD2C-CH3) or one on each carbon (1,2-dideuteroethane, DH2C-CDH2); as if the substituent was
chlorine Chlorine is a chemical element with the symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between them. Chlorine i ...
instead of deuterium. The two molecules do not interconvert easily and have different properties, such as their microwave spectrum.Eizi Hirota (2012): "Microwave spectroscopy of isotope-substituted non-polar molecules". Chapter 5 in ''Molecular Spectroscopy: Modern Research'', volume 3. 466 pages. Another example would be substituting one atom of deuterium for one of the hydrogens in
chlorofluoromethane Chlorofluoromethane or Freon 31 is the hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) with the formula CH2ClF. It is a colorless, odorless, flammable gas. Uses Pyrolysis of a mixture of dichlorofluoromethane and chlorofluoromethane gives hexafluorobenzene: :3 C ...
(CH2ClF). While the original molecule is not chiral and has a single isomer, the substitution creates a pair of chiral enantiomers of CHDClF, which could be distinguished (at least in theory) by their optical activity. When two isomers would be identical if all isotopes of each element were replaced by a single isotope, they are described as
isotopomer Isotopomers or isotopic isomers are isomers with isotopic atoms, having the same number of each isotope of each element but differing in their positions. The result is that the molecules are either constitutional isomers or stereoisomers solel ...
s or isotopic isomers. In the above two examples if all D were replaced by H, the two dideuteroethanes would both become ethane and the two deuterochlorofluoromethanes would both become CH2ClF. The concept of isotopomers is different from isotopologs or isotopic homologs, which differ in their isotopic composition. For example, C2H5D and C2H4D2 are isotopologues and not isotopomers, and are therefore not isomers of each other.


Spin isomers

Another type of isomerism based on nuclear properties is spin isomerism, where molecules differ only in the relative spin magnetic quantum numbers ms of the constituent atomic nuclei. This phenomenon is significant for molecular hydrogen, which can be partially separated into two long-lived states described as spin isomers or nuclear spin isomers: parahydrogen, with the spins of the two nuclei pointing in opposite directions, and orthohydrogen, where the spins point in the same direction.


Isomerization

Isomerization is the process by which one molecule is transformed into another molecule that has exactly the same atoms, but the atoms are rearranged. In some molecules and under some conditions, isomerization occurs spontaneously. Many isomers are equal or roughly equal in bond energy, and so exist in roughly equal amounts, provided that they can interconvert relatively freely, that is the energy barrier between the two isomers is not too high. When the isomerization occurs intramolecularly, it is considered a rearrangement reaction. An example of an organometallic isomerization is the production of decaphenylferrocene, Ph5)2Fe.html" ;"title="phenyl.html" ;"title="η5-C5 Ph5)2Fe">phenyl.html"_;"title="η5-C5phenyl">Ph5)2Fefrom_its_linkage_isomerism.html" ;"title="phenyl">Ph5)2Fe">phenyl.html" ;"title="η5-C5phenyl">Ph5)2Fefrom its linkage isomerism">linkage isomer. ;Synthesis of fumaric acid Industrial synthesis of fumaric acid proceeds via the cis-trans isomerization of maleic acid: : Topoisomerases are enzymes that can cut and reform circular DNA and thus change its topology.


Medicinal chemistry

Isomers having distinct biological properties are common; for example, the placement of methyl groups. In substituted
xanthine Xanthine ( or ; archaically xanthic acid; systematic name 3,7-dihydropurine-2,6-dione) is a purine base found in most human body tissues and fluids, as well as in other organisms. Several stimulants are derived from xanthine, including caffein ...
s,
theobromine Theobromine, also known as xantheose, is the principal alkaloid of '' Theobroma cacao'' (cacao plant). Theobromine is slightly water- soluble (330 mg/L) with a bitter taste. In industry, theobromine is used as an additive and precursor to ...
, found in chocolate, is a vasodilator with some effects in common with
caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine chemical classification, class. It is mainly recreational drug use, used recreationally as a Nootropic, cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional perfor ...
; but, if one of the two methyl groups is moved to a different position on the two-ring core, the isomer is theophylline, which has a variety of effects, including
bronchodilation A bronchodilator or broncholytic (although the latter occasionally includes secretory inhibition as well) is a substance that dilates the bronchi and bronchioles, decreasing resistance in the respiratory airway and increasing airflow to the lung ...
and anti-inflammatory action. Another example of this occurs in the phenethylamine-based stimulant drugs. Phentermine is a non-chiral compound with a weaker effect than that of amphetamine. It is used as an appetite-reducing medication and has mild or no stimulant properties. However, an alternate atomic arrangement gives dextromethamphetamine, which is a stronger stimulant than amphetamine. In medicinal chemistry and biochemistry,
enantiomer In chemistry, an enantiomer ( /ɪˈnænti.əmər, ɛ-, -oʊ-/ ''ih-NAN-tee-ə-mər''; from Ancient Greek ἐνάντιος ''(enántios)'' 'opposite', and μέρος ''(méros)'' 'part') – also called optical isomer, antipode, or optical anti ...
s are a special concern because they may possess distinct biological activity. Many preparative procedures afford a mixture of equal amounts of both enantiomeric forms. In some cases, the enantiomers are separated by chromatography using chiral stationary phases. They may also be separated through the formation of diastereomeric salts. In other cases,
enantioselective synthesis Enantioselective synthesis, also called asymmetric synthesis, is a form of chemical synthesis. It is defined by IUPAC as "a chemical reaction (or reaction sequence) in which one or more new elements of chirality are formed in a substrate molecu ...
have been developed. As an inorganic example, cisplatin (see structure above) is an important drug used in cancer chemotherapy, whereas the trans isomer (transplatin) has no useful pharmacological activity.


History

Isomerism was first observed in 1827, when
Friedrich Wöhler Friedrich Wöhler () FRS(For) Hon FRSE (31 July 180023 September 1882) was a German chemist known for his work in inorganic chemistry, being the first to isolate the chemical elements beryllium and yttrium in pure metallic form. He was the fi ...
prepared silver cyanate and discovered that, although its elemental composition of AgCNO was identical to
silver fulminate Silver fulminate (AgCNO) is the highly explosive silver salt of fulminic acid. Silver fulminate is a primary explosive, but has limited use as such due to its extreme sensitivity to impact, heat, pressure, and electricity. The compound becomes ...
(prepared by
Justus von Liebig Justus Freiherr von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 20 April 1873) was a German scientist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and is considered one of the principal founders of organic chemistry. As a professor at th ...
the previous year), its properties were distinct. This finding challenged the prevailing chemical understanding of the time, which held that
chemical compound A chemical compound is a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules (or molecular entities) containing atoms from more than one chemical element held together by chemical bonds. A molecule consisting of atoms of only one element ...
s could be distinct only when their elemental compositions differ. (We now know that the bonding structures of fulminate and cyanate can be approximately described as O- N+C- and O=C=N-, respectively.) Additional examples were found in succeeding years, such as Wöhler's 1828 discovery that
urea Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with chemical formula . This amide has two amino groups (–) joined by a carbonyl functional group (–C(=O)–). It is thus the simplest amide of carbamic acid. Urea serves an important ...
has the same atomic composition (CH4N2O) as the chemically distinct ammonium cyanate. (Their structures are now known to be (H2N-)2C=O and
H+4 H4, H04, or H-4 may refer to: Science and mathematics * ATC code H04 ''Pancreatic hormones'', a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System * Histamine H4 receptor, a human gene * Histone H4, a protein involved in the s ...
=C=N^ -
, respectively.) In 1830
Jöns Jacob Berzelius Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius (; by himself and his contemporaries named only Jacob Berzelius, 20 August 1779 – 7 August 1848) was a Swedish chemist. Berzelius is considered, along with Robert Boyle, John Dalton, and Antoine Lavoisier, to be o ...
introduced the term ''isomerism'' to describe the phenomenon.Jac. Berzelius (1830):
Om sammansättningen af vinsyra och drufsyra (John's säure aus den Voghesen), om blyoxidens atomvigt, samt allmänna anmärkningar om sådana kroppar som hafva lika sammansättning, men skiljaktiga egenskaper
("On the composition of tartaric acid and racemic acid (John's acid of the Vosges), on the molecular weight of lead oxide, together with general observations on those bodies that have the same composition but distinct properties"). ''Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Handling'' (''Transactions of the Royal Swedish Science Academy''), volume 49, pages 49–80
J. J. Berzelius (1831):
Über die Zusammensetzung der Weinsäure und Traubensäure (John's säure aus den Voghesen), über das Atomengewicht des Bleioxyds, nebst allgemeinen Bemerkungen über solche Körper, die gleiche Zusammensetzung, aber ungleiche Eigenschaften besitzen
. ''Annalen der Physik und Chemie'', volume 19, pages 305–335
J. J. Berzelius (1831):
Composition de l'acide tartarique et de l'acide racémique (traubensäure); poids atomique de l'oxide de plomb, et remarques générals sur les corps qui ont la même composition, et possèdent des proprietés différentes
. ''Annales de Chimie et de Physique'', volume 46, pages 113–147.
In 1848,
Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization, the latter of which was named afte ...
observed that
tartaric acid Tartaric acid is a white, crystalline organic acid that occurs naturally in many fruits, most notably in grapes, but also in bananas, tamarinds, and citrus. Its salt, potassium bitartrate, commonly known as cream of tartar, develops naturally ...
crystals came into two kinds of shapes that were mirror images of each other. Separating the crystals by hand, he obtained two version of tartaric acid, each of which would crystallize in only one of the two shapes, and rotated the plane of polarized light to the same degree but in opposite directions.L. Pasteur (1848
"Sur les relations qui peuvent exister entre la forme cristalline, la composition chimique et le sens de la polarisation rotatoire"
("On the relations that can exist between crystalline form, chemical composition, and the sense of rotary polarization"), ''Annales de Chimie et de Physique'', 3rd series, volume 24, issue 6, pages 442–459.


See also

*
Chirality (chemistry) In chemistry, a molecule or ion is called chiral () if it cannot be superposed on its mirror image by any combination of rotations, translations, and some conformational changes. This geometric property is called chirality (). The terms a ...
* Cis-trans isomerism * Cyclohexane conformation * Descriptor (chemistry) *
Electromerism Electromerism is a type of isomerism between a pair of molecules (electromers, electro-isomers) differing in the way electrons are distributed among the atoms and the connecting chemical bonds. In some literature electromerism is equated to valence ...
* Isomery (botany) *
Ligand isomerism In coordination chemistry, ligand isomerism is a type of structural isomerism in coordination complexes which arises from the presence of ligands which can adopt different isomeric forms. 1,2-Diaminopropane and 1,3-Diaminopropane 1,3-Diaminopr ...
* Nuclear isomer * Stereocenter *
Structural isomerism In chemistry, a structural isomer (or constitutional isomer in the IUPAC nomenclature) of a compound is another compound whose molecule has the same number of atoms of each element, but with logically distinct bonds between them. The term meta ...
*
Tautomer Tautomers () are structural isomers (constitutional isomers) of chemical compounds that readily interconvert. The chemical reaction interconverting the two is called tautomerization. This conversion commonly results from the relocation of a hy ...
* Vitamer


References


External links

{{Commons category, Isomerism Isomerism 1827 introductions ga:Isiméir