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Industrial archaeology (IA) is the systematic study of material evidence associated with the industrial past. This evidence, collectively referred to as
industrial heritage Industrial heritage refers to the physical remains of the history of technology and industry, such as manufacturing and mining sites, as well as power and transportation infrastructure. Another definition expands this scope so that the term a ...
, includes buildings, machinery, artifacts, sites, infrastructure, documents and other items associated with the production, manufacture, extraction, transport or construction of a product or range of products. The field of industrial archaeology incorporates a range of disciplines including archaeology,
architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...
,
construction Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form Physical object, objects, systems, or organizations,"Construction" def. 1.a. 1.b. and 1.c. ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Pr ...
, engineering, historic preservation, museology, technology, urban planning and other specialties, in order to piece together the history of past industrial activities. The scientific interpretation of material evidence is often necessary, as the written record of many industrial techniques is often incomplete or nonexistent. Industrial archaeology includes both the examination of standing structures and sites that must be studied by an excavation. The field of industrial archaeology developed during the 1950s in Great Britain, at a time when many historic industrial sites and artifacts were being lost throughout that country, including the notable case of
Euston Arch The Euston Arch, built in 1837 (and demolished in 1962), was the original entrance to Euston station, facing onto Drummond Street, London. The arch was demolished when the station was rebuilt in the 1960s, but much of the original stone was later ...
in
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
. In the 1960s and 1970s, with the rise of national cultural heritage movements, industrial archaeology grew as a distinct form of archaeology, with a strong emphasis on preservation, first in Great Britain, and later in the United States and other parts of the world. During this period, the first organized national industrial heritage inventories were begun, including the Industrial Monuments Survey in England and the
Historic American Engineering Record Heritage Documentation Programs (HDP) is a division of the U.S. National Park Service (NPS) responsible for administering the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), Historic American Engineering Record (HAER), and Historic American Landscapes ...
in the United States. Additionally, a number of regional and national IA organizations were established, including the North American-based Society for Industrial Archeology in 1971, and the British-based Association for Industrial Archaeology in 1973. That same year, the ''First International Conference on the Conservation of Industrial Monuments'' was held at
Ironbridge Ironbridge is a large village in the borough of Telford and Wrekin in Shropshire, England. Located on the bank of the River Severn, at the heart of the Ironbridge Gorge, it lies in the civil parish of The Gorge. Ironbridge developed beside, a ...
in Shropshire. This conference led, in 1978, to the formal establishment of
The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage, usually known by its acronym TICCIH, is the international society dedicated to the study of industrial archaeology and the protection, promotion and interpretation of the ...
(commonly known as "TICCIH") as a worldwide organization for the promotion of industrial heritage. The members of these and other IA groups are generally a diverse mix of professionals and amateurs who share a common interest in promoting the study, appreciation and preservation of
industrial heritage Industrial heritage refers to the physical remains of the history of technology and industry, such as manufacturing and mining sites, as well as power and transportation infrastructure. Another definition expands this scope so that the term a ...
resources.


Industrial archaeology topics and sites

Industrial archaeology covers a wide range of topics, from early ironworks and water-powered mills to large modern factories, as well as ancillary sites and structures such as worker housing, warehouses and infrastructure.
IA topics generally fall into one of four categories: *Extractive (also known as "basic materials", which includes mining, quarrying, petroleum, lumbering, etc.), *Manufacturing (mills and factories, including their power systems and machinery), *Public utilities (water, sewer, electric, gas, etc.), and *Transport (canals, railways, roads, aviation, bridges, tunnels, etc.). Additionally, the topic of power generation (water, wind, steam, electric, etc.), while applicable to each of the four major IA categories, is sometimes considered its own category. The work of industrial archaeologists has led to greater public awareness of
industrial heritage Industrial heritage refers to the physical remains of the history of technology and industry, such as manufacturing and mining sites, as well as power and transportation infrastructure. Another definition expands this scope so that the term a ...
, including the creation of industry museums and the inclusion of sites on national and international historic cultural registers in many parts of the world. Notable examples include the Ironbridge Gorge Museums,
Engelsberg Ironworks Engelsberg Ironworks ( sv, Engelsbergs bruk) is an ironworks in ''Ängelsberg'', a village in Fagersta Municipality in Västmanland, Sweden. It was built in 1681 by Per Larsson Gyllenhöök (1645-1706) and developed into one of the world's most mod ...
and Lowell National Historical Park, among many others.


History of industrial archaeology


Early developments

One of the earliest forerunners of the mid-20th-century IA-movement was the Sheffield Trades Technical Societies, established in 1918 at the University of Sheffield to preserve elements of that city's industrial history. In 1920, the
Newcomen Society Newcomen may refer to: People * John Newcomen (c.1613–1630), English first white settler murdered by another white settler in Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts * Matthew Newcomen (c. 1610–1669), English nonconformist churchman *Thomas Newcomen (16 ...
was founded in Great Britain to foster the study of the history of engineering and technology, including many relics of the industrial revolution, such as steam engines, canals, iron bridges, machinery, and other historical artifacts. The Newcomen Society also established the ''Journal of Industrial Archaeology'' in 1964, first national IA-publication in the UK. Another early development was the formation of the Cornish Engines Preservation Committee (CEPC) in 1935, to rescue the Levant Mine and Beam Engine in Cornwall. During the early 20th century, the historic preservation movement in the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
was still in its infancy. Most of the historic sites that received any attention were related to presidents and political figures, or the early colonial period. However, in 1925, one of the first industrial museums in the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
opened at Old Slater Mill, in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, at the site of the first successful textile mill in the country, built in 1793. The museum was founded by a group of business leaders with ties to the New England textile industry, during a period of decline due to Southern competition. The Old Slater Mill Association had the foresight to restore the old mill to its early 19th-century appearance, and fill it with a representative collection of textile machinery. In 1966, Old Slater Mill was declared a
National Historic Landmark A National Historic Landmark (NHL) is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Only some 2,500 (~3%) of over 90,000 places listed ...
. In the early 1970s, Paul E. Rivard, then the director of the Old Slater Mill museum was one of the key figures in the founding of the Society for Industrial Archeology. Another notable example of an early industrial archaeology site (one that predates the widespread IA-movement), is the Saugus Iron Works National Historic Site in
Saugus, Massachusetts Saugus is a town in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States, in the Greater Boston area. The population was 28,619 at the 2020 census. Saugus is known as the site of the first integrated iron works in North America. History Native Americans ...
. It is the site of the first integrated iron works in North America, and was reconstructed in the 1950s after extensive archaeological excavations that began in the late 1940s by Roland W. Robbins.


Beginnings of the IA movement

The term “industrial archaeology” was popularised in Great Britain in 1955 by Michael Rix of
Birmingham University , mottoeng = Through efforts to heights , established = 1825 – Birmingham School of Medicine and Surgery1836 – Birmingham Royal School of Medicine and Surgery1843 – Queen's College1875 – Mason Science College1898 – Mason Univers ...
, who wrote an article in ''The Amateur Historian'', about the need for greater study and preservation of 18th and 19th century industrial sites and relics of the British industrial revolution. In 1959, Council for British Archaeology (CBA) established an industrial archaeology research committee. The CBA soon developed a standardized record card for industrial monuments, which it distributed to volunteer groups around the UK. In 1965, the National Record of Industrial Monuments (NRIM) was created as a central archive for the record cards that had been collected by Angus Buchanan at the
University of Bath (Virgil, Georgics II) , mottoeng = Learn the culture proper to each after its kind , established = 1886 (Merchant Venturers Technical College) 1960 (Bristol College of Science and Technology) 1966 (Bath University of Technology) 1971 (univ ...
. By the late 1960s, a number of local industrial archaeology groups had been formed in the UK, including the Gloucestershire Society for Industrial Archaeology in 1963, the Bristol Industrial Archaeological Society in 1967, and the Greater London Industrial Archaeology Society in 1968, among others. The primary mission of these local IA groups during this period was recording the remaining relics of industrial history, especially those deemed to be most at risk from urban redevelopment schemes. Depending on the condition of the site or artifact, recording typically consists of compiling a brief summary of the site's history through available records, including old maps or photographs, followed by detailed onsite measurements, drawings and photographs of the existing conditions of the site. Generally, a report is prepared and copies are filed in a public archive for the benefit of future generations. Most recording trips are intended to obtain a general overview of existing conditions, and are not meant to be an exhaustive study. One of the first areas to be the subject of a systematic study of industrial archaeology was the Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire,
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
. This landscape developed from the 17th century as one of the first industrial landscapes in the world, and by the 18th century had a range of extractive industries as well as extensive
iron Iron () is a chemical element with Symbol (chemistry), symbol Fe (from la, Wikt:ferrum, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 element, group 8 of the periodic table. It is, Abundanc ...
making, ceramic manufacturing, and a series of early railways. The Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust was established in 1967, and the significance of the Ironbridge Gorge was recognized in 1986 with its designation as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
. In 1963, British journalist Kenneth Hudson published the first IA text, titled ''Industrial archaeology: an introduction''. Four years later in April 1967, Hudson spoke at a seminar at the
Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums and education and research centers, the largest such complex in the world, created by the U.S. government "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge". Founded ...
in
Washington, D.C. ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...
, at what is considered the birth of the IA-movement in the United States. The seminar, which was attended by an audience of historic preservationists, museum professionals and others, focused on what was being done to promote the study of industrial archaeology in Great Britain and in Europe, and what needed to be done in the United States. By this time, a number of select historic industrial sites had been recorded by the
Historic American Buildings Survey Heritage Documentation Programs (HDP) is a division of the U.S. National Park Service (NPS) responsible for administering the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), Historic American Engineering Record (HAER), and Historic American Landscapes ...
(HABS), which until then had mainly concentrated its efforts on architecturally significant sites. In 1967, the notable ''New England Textile Mills Survey'' (NETMS) was performed under the HABS umbrella, led by Robert M. Vogel, curator of the Division of Mechanical and Civil at the Smithsonian Museum of History and Technology. The NETMS was the first large-scale, industrial recording project by HABS. It was followed by the ''New England Textile Mill Survey II'' in 1968. The full reports from the 1967 and 1968 textile mill surveys are now available for public viewing on the Library of Congress website, including the Amoskeag Millyard in
Manchester, New Hampshire Manchester is a city in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, United States. It is the most populous city in New Hampshire. At the 2020 census, the city had a population of 115,644. Manchester is, along with Nashua, one of two seats of New Ha ...
, which was drastically altered soon after the survey was completed. The success of the 1967 and 1968 mill surveys led to the formation of the
Historic American Engineering Record Heritage Documentation Programs (HDP) is a division of the U.S. National Park Service (NPS) responsible for administering the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), Historic American Engineering Record (HAER), and Historic American Landscapes ...
(HAER) in 1969, in conjunction with the
American Society of Civil Engineers American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...
. Since then, thousands of industrial / engineering sites and structures throughout the United States have been recorded by HAER, and are on record at th
Library of Congress
for public benefit.


1970s-1980s

By the early 1970s, industrial archaeology was, for the most part, being practiced in a few select countries by amateurs and professionals with different backgrounds and objectives. While much had been accomplished during the preceding decade, the "new" field of industrial archaeology was still struggling to gain acceptance as a true scholarly pursuit. In October 1971, a group of representatives from various museums, universities, and government organizations in the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
and
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
met in
Washington, D.C. ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...
to establish a means to improve the exchange of ideas and information. The result was the first national-level, IA-related
academic society A learned society (; also learned academy, scholarly society, or academic association) is an organization that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and science. Membership may ...
in the world; the Society for Industrial Archeology (SIA). It was decided that the name of the Society would take on the US-Government's spelling of ''"archeology"'', instead of "archaeology". The first SIA newsletter was published in January 1972, with Robert M. Vogel as editor. In April of that same year the new group held its first annual conference in
New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the Un ...
. In 1975, the SIA introduced its
academic journal An academic journal or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny, and ...
,
IA, The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology ''IA: The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology'' is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal published by the Society for Industrial Archeology, currently edited by Steven Walton (Michigan Technological University). ''IA'' publishes s ...
, with
Emory Kemp Emory Leland Kemp was the founder and director of the Institute for the History of Technology and Industrial Archaeology at West Virginia University. There, he was Chair and Professor of Civil Engineering at the Benjamin M. Statler College of En ...
as editor. In 1973, the Association for Industrial Archaeology (AIA) was founded in Great Britain. It brought together the numerous local IA-groups that had been formed throughout the country. The AIA publishes a newsletter, ''Industrial Archaeology News'', along with its academic journal, ''Industrial Archaeology Review'', introduced in 1976. Many AIA members have been active in promoting the mission of IA throughout Europe and the rest of the world. With the rapid decline of many established industries in North America and Europe during the 1970s, industrial archaeologists began to take on a new role of recording and preserving recently closed sites, as opposed to antique relics from earlier periods. Among the notable projects during this decade was the successful transformation of
Sloss Furnaces Sloss Furnaces is a National Historic Landmark in Birmingham, Alabama in the United States. It operated as a pig iron-producing blast furnace from 1882 to 1971. After closing, it became one of the first industrial sites (and the only blast furnace ...
in
Birmingham, Alabama Birmingham ( ) is a city in the north central region of the U.S. state of Alabama. Birmingham is the seat of Jefferson County, Alabama's most populous county. As of the 2021 census estimates, Birmingham had a population of 197,575, down 1% fr ...
after it shut down in 1971 into an open air industrial museum. Sloss Furnaces was declared a NHL in 1981. The museum opened in 1983 and offers a variety of educational and civic programs. In 1982, I.A.Recordings was founded by a small group of volunteers in the UK, to record past and present industries on film and video, as a resource for future generations. During the 1980s, the scope of the field of industrial archaeology in Great Britain shifted away from what was taken place in North America, where the theories of social archaeology that were developed in the
historical archaeology Historical archaeology is a form of archaeology dealing with places, things, and issues from the past or present when written records and oral traditions can inform and contextualize cultural material. These records can both complement and conflict ...
field began to be applied to the study of industrial sites. British industrial archaeologists meanwhile mainly focused on the recording of the technical aspects of sites and artifacts. One key development during this period was the shift toward thematic studies of monuments by type, including three initial textile mill surveys in
Greater Manchester Greater Manchester is a metropolitan county and combined authority area in North West England, with a population of 2.8 million; comprising ten metropolitan boroughs: Manchester, Salford, Bolton, Bury, Oldham, Rochdale, Stockport, Tam ...
,
Yorkshire Yorkshire ( ; abbreviated Yorks), formally known as the County of York, is a historic county in northern England and by far the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its large area in comparison with other English counties, functions have ...
and eastern Cheshire led by Keith Falconer.


Since 1990

Since 1990, there has been an ever-increasing awareness of the importance of industrial heritage, confirmed most prominently by the addition of numerous industrial sites to the UNESCO
World Heritage List A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for ...
. Many preserved industrial sites have become a vital part of
heritage tourism Cultural heritage tourism (or just heritage tourism) is a branch of tourism oriented towards the cultural heritage of the location where tourism is occurring. The National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States defines heritage t ...
, including the
European Route of Industrial Heritage The European Route of Industrial Heritage (ERIH) is a tourist route of the most important industrial heritage sites in Europe. This is a tourism industry information initiative to present a network of industrial heritage sites across Europe. The ...
(ERIH), established in 1999. Based on the success of the ''Route der Industriekultur'' in Ruhr,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, the ERIH has expanded to consist of sixteen routes in seven countries, with plans for new routes in additional countries. The number of industrial sites that have been preserved and converted to other uses such as apartments, public spaces or museums instead of being demolished is also a testament to the efforts of industrial archaeologists. Industrial archaeology has gradually gained acceptance in the academic arena. In the UK, where the field developed largely from the efforts of volunteer researchers, the emergence of developer-funded projects in the past two decades has led to an increased presence of professional practitioners, with the application of theoretical archaeology methods such as
landscape archaeology Landscape archaeology, a sub-discipline of archaeology and archaeological theory, is the study of the ways in which people in the past constructed and used the environment around them. It is also known as archaeogeography (from the Greek "ancient ...
to the industrial setting. However, while many university archaeology departments now include the industrial period in their degree courses, industrial archaeology remains a fairly limited field of study, with few dedicated industrial archaeology programs, such as those offered at Michigan Technological University and the
Ironbridge Institute The Ironbridge Institute is a centre offering postgraduate and professional development courses in cultural heritage, located in the Ironbridge Gorge region of Shropshire, England. The institute is located in Coalbrookdale, just outside Ironbri ...
. Widespread appreciation of the importance of industrial heritage by the general public is still lacking in many areas, as the subject often maintains the perception of being "not old enough" to truly be considered archaeology. Additionally, there are often negative associations with neglected or abandoned industrial sites, including the social, economic and environmental consequences ("
brownfield In urban planning, brownfield land is any previously developed land that is not currently in use. It may be potentially contaminated, but this is not required for the area to be considered brownfield. The term is also used to describe land prev ...
" sites). As with other history-based fields, one of the continuing challenges of industrial archaeologists throughout the world is the competition for ever-decreasing public funding for their research, educational and preservation projects. The sheer number of historic industrial sites and limited funding often means that many are still being lost to neglect, fire and demolition. In 2003, the ''Nizhny Tagil Charter'' was adopted by TICCIH at its XII Congress in Nizhny Tagil, Russia. It is the international standard for the study, documentation, conservation and interpretation of the
industrial heritage Industrial heritage refers to the physical remains of the history of technology and industry, such as manufacturing and mining sites, as well as power and transportation infrastructure. Another definition expands this scope so that the term a ...
.


IA organizations

There are national industrial archaeology societies in many countries. They bring together people interested in researching, recording, preserving and presenting industrial heritage. Industrial architecture, mineral extraction, heritage-based tourism, power technology,
adaptive reuse Adaptive reuse refers to the process of reusing an existing building for a purpose other than which it was originally built or designed for. It is also known as recycling and conversion. Adaptive reuse is an effective strategy for optimizing the o ...
, and transport history are just some of the themes that are investigated by society members. Most groups publish periodic newsletters and host a variety of conferences, seminars and tours of IA-sites and still-active industries (known as process tours). IA organizations may also be involved in advising on historic conservation matters, or advising government units on revision or demolition of significant sites or buildings.


See also

* Arthur Raistrick *
Aviation archaeology Aviation archaeology is a recognized sub-discipline within archaeology and underwater archaeology as a whole. It is an activity practiced by both enthusiasts and academics in pursuit of finding, documenting, recovering, and preserving sites import ...
* I.A.Recordings *
Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor The industrial archaeology of Dartmoor covers a number of the industries which have, over the ages, taken place on Dartmoor, and the remaining evidence surrounding them. Currently only three industries are economically significant, yet all three w ...
*
Industrial heritage Industrial heritage refers to the physical remains of the history of technology and industry, such as manufacturing and mining sites, as well as power and transportation infrastructure. Another definition expands this scope so that the term a ...
*
List of tunnels in the United Kingdom This is a list of road, railway, waterway, and other tunnels in the United Kingdom. A tunnel is an underground passageway with no defined minimum length, though it may be considered to be at least twice as long as wide. Some government bodies ...
* Ken Major * Major Mining Sites of Wallonia *
Mill conversion Mill Conversion or mill rehab is a form of adaptive reuse in which a historic mill or industrial factory building is restored or rehabilitated into another use, such as residential housing, retail shops, office, or a mix of these non-industrial e ...
*
Quarry Bank Mill Quarry Bank Mill (also known as Styal Mill) in Styal, Cheshire, England, is one of the best preserved textile factories of the Industrial Revolution. Built in 1784, the cotton mill is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a ...
* Railway archaeology *
Rex Wailes Reginald "Rex" Wailes OBE, FSA, F I Mech E (6 March 1901 – 7 January 1986) was an English engineer and historian who published widely on aspects of engineering history and industrial archaeology, particularly on windmills and watermills. W ...


References


Further reading

*Birmingham, J., Jack, R.I. and Jeans, D. (1979) ''Australian pioneer technology: sites and relics'', Richmond, Vic.: Heinemann Educational Australia, *Birmingham, J., Jack, R.I. and Jeans, D. (1983) ''Industrial Archaeology in Australia: rural industry'', Richmond, Vic. : Heinemann Publishers Australia, *Buchanan, R.A. (1972) ''Industrial Archaeology in Britain'', Harmondsworth : Penguin, *Cossons, N. (ed.) (2000) ''Perspectives on Industrial Archaeology'', London : Science Museum, *Daunton, M.J. (1995) ''Progress and Poverty: an economic and social history of Britain, 1700–1850'', Oxford University Press, *Deetz, J. (1977) ''In Small Things Forgotten'', Garden City, N.Y. : Anchor Press/Doubleday, *Douet, J. (ed.). (2012) ''Industrial Heritage Re-tooled: The TICCIH guide to Industrial Heritage Conservation'', Lancaster: Carnegie, *Gordon, R.B. and Malone, P.M. (1994), ''The texture of industry : an archaeological view of the industrialization of North America'', Oxford University Press, *Hamond, F. and McMahon, M. (2002) ''Recording and Conserving Ireland's Industrial Heritage'', Kilkenny : Heritage Council, * Hills, R. L. (1989) ''Power from Steam: a history of the stationary steam engine'', Cambridge University Press, *Hudson, K. (1966) ''Industrial Archaeology: an Introduction'', 2nd rev. ed., London : John Baker, 184 p. *Hudson, K. (1969) ''World Industrial Archaeology'', Cambridge University Press, *Itzen, P. and Müller, Chr. (ed.) (2013), ''The Invention of Industrial Pasts: Heritage, political culture and economic debates in Great Britain and Germany, 1850-2010'', Augsburg: Wissner; pp. 184 *Jack, R.I. and Cremin, A. (1994) ''Australia's Age of Iron'', South Melbourne : Oxford University Press in association with Sydney University Press, * Kane, R.
844 __NOTOC__ Year 844 ( DCCCXLIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * Spring – Battle of Mauropotamos: A Byzantine expedition under ...
1971) ''Industrial Resources of Ireland'', The Development of industrial society series, Shannon, Ireland : Irish University Press, *McCutcheon, W.A. (1984) ''The Industrial Archaeology of Northern Ireland'', Rutherford, N.J. : Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, *Newman, R. and Howard-Davis, C. (2001) ''The Historical Archaeology of Britain : c.1540-1900'', Stroud : Sutton, *Orser, C.E., Jr (1996) ''Images of the Recent Past: readings in historical archaeology '', Walnut Creek ; London : Alta Mira Press, * Palmer, M. and Neverson, P. (1998) ''Industrial Archaeology : principles and practice'
[electronic_resource]
_London;_New_York_:_Routledge,_ *Thomas,_J._(ed.)_(2000)_''Interpretive_Archaeology_:_a_reader'',_London_:_Leicester_University_Press,_ *Watkins,_G._(1999)_''The_Textile_Mill_Engine:_parts_1_&_2'',_Ashbourne_:_Landmark,_


_External_links


__General_


European_Route_of_Industrial_Heritage

Ironbridge_Gorge_Museum
at_Smithsonian_Institution_ The_Smithsonian_Institution_(_),_or_simply_the_Smithsonian,_is_a_group_of_museums_and_education_and_research_centers,_the_largest_such_complex_in_the_world,_created_by_the__U.S._government_"for_the_increase_and_diffusion_of_knowledge"._Founded__...

Steel_City:_an_Archaeology_of_Sheffield's_Industrial_PastItalian_Network_of_Industrial_Turism


__Local_IA_organisations_

''Great_Britain''
Berkshire_Industrial_Archaeology_Group_Bristol_Industrial_Archaeological_SocietyGloucestershire_Society_for_Industrial_ArchaeologyGreater_London_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyIronbridge_Archaeology_unit_Norfolk_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyNorth_East_Derbyshire_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyNorthamptonshire_Industrial_Archaeology_GroupScottish_Industrial_Heritage_SocietySomerset_Industrial_Archaeological_SocietyStaffordshire_(uk)_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietySussex_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyWarwickshire_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyYorkshire_Archaeological_Society_-_Industrial_History_Section
''United_States'' The_Society_for_Industrial_Archeology_has_the_followin



(Montana)
New_England_ChaptersNorthern_Ohio_Chapter
(Northern_Ohio_and_Western_Pennsylvania)

(Philadelphia_metropolitan_area)_
Roebling_Chapter
(New_York_metropolitan_area_and_New_Jersey)
Samuel_Knight_Chapter
(Northern_California)


__Reference_materials_



a_web-based_resource_site


__Degree_Programs_



at__Michigan_Technological_University
Master_of_Arts_degree
at_ [electronic_resource]
_London;_New_York_:_Routledge,_ *Thomas,_J._(ed.)_(2000)_''Interpretive_Archaeology_:_a_reader'',_London_:_Leicester_University_Press,_ *Watkins,_G._(1999)_''The_Textile_Mill_Engine:_parts_1_&_2'',_Ashbourne_:_Landmark,_


_External_links


__General_


European_Route_of_Industrial_Heritage

Ironbridge_Gorge_Museum
at_Smithsonian_Institution_ The_Smithsonian_Institution_(_),_or_simply_the_Smithsonian,_is_a_group_of_museums_and_education_and_research_centers,_the_largest_such_complex_in_the_world,_created_by_the__U.S._government_"for_the_increase_and_diffusion_of_knowledge"._Founded__...

Steel_City:_an_Archaeology_of_Sheffield's_Industrial_PastItalian_Network_of_Industrial_Turism


__Local_IA_organisations_

''Great_Britain''
Berkshire_Industrial_Archaeology_Group_Bristol_Industrial_Archaeological_SocietyGloucestershire_Society_for_Industrial_ArchaeologyGreater_London_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyIronbridge_Archaeology_unit_Norfolk_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyNorth_East_Derbyshire_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyNorthamptonshire_Industrial_Archaeology_GroupScottish_Industrial_Heritage_SocietySomerset_Industrial_Archaeological_SocietyStaffordshire_(uk)_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietySussex_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyWarwickshire_Industrial_Archaeology_SocietyYorkshire_Archaeological_Society_-_Industrial_History_Section
''United_States'' The_Society_for_Industrial_Archeology_has_the_followin



(Montana)
New_England_ChaptersNorthern_Ohio_Chapter
(Northern_Ohio_and_Western_Pennsylvania)

(Philadelphia_metropolitan_area)_
Roebling_Chapter
(New_York_metropolitan_area_and_New_Jersey)
Samuel_Knight_Chapter
(Northern_California)


__Reference_materials_



a_web-based_resource_site


__Degree_Programs_



at__Michigan_Technological_University
Master_of_Arts_degree
at_University_of_Birmingham">Ironbridge_Institute_ The_Ironbridge_Institute_is_a_centre_offering_postgraduate_and_professional_development_courses_in__cultural_heritage,_located_in_the__Ironbridge_Gorge_region_of_Shropshire,_England. The_institute_is_located_in_Coalbrookdale,_just_outside_Ironbri_...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Industrial_Archaeology Industrial_archaeology.html" ;"title="University_of_Birmingham.html" "title="lectronic resource]">[electronic resource]
London; New York : Routledge, *Thomas, J. (ed.) (2000) ''Interpretive Archaeology : a reader'', London : Leicester University Press, *Watkins, G. (1999) ''The Textile Mill Engine: parts 1 & 2'', Ashbourne : Landmark,


External links


General


European Route of Industrial Heritage

Ironbridge Gorge Museum
at
Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums and education and research centers, the largest such complex in the world, created by the U.S. government "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge". Founded ...

Steel City: an Archaeology of Sheffield's Industrial PastItalian Network of Industrial Turism


Local IA organisations

''Great Britain''
Berkshire Industrial Archaeology Group Bristol Industrial Archaeological SocietyGloucestershire Society for Industrial ArchaeologyGreater London Industrial Archaeology SocietyIronbridge Archaeology unit Norfolk Industrial Archaeology SocietyNorth East Derbyshire Industrial Archaeology SocietyNorthamptonshire Industrial Archaeology GroupScottish Industrial Heritage SocietySomerset Industrial Archaeological SocietyStaffordshire (uk) Industrial Archaeology SocietySussex Industrial Archaeology SocietyWarwickshire Industrial Archaeology SocietyYorkshire Archaeological Society - Industrial History Section
''United States'' The Society for Industrial Archeology has the followin



(Montana)
New England ChaptersNorthern Ohio Chapter
(Northern Ohio and Western Pennsylvania)

(Philadelphia metropolitan area)
Roebling Chapter
(New York metropolitan area and New Jersey)
Samuel Knight Chapter
(Northern California)


Reference materials



a web-based resource site


Degree Programs



at Michigan Technological University
Master of Arts degree
at University of Birmingham">Ironbridge Institute The Ironbridge Institute is a centre offering postgraduate and professional development courses in cultural heritage, located in the Ironbridge Gorge region of Shropshire, England. The institute is located in Coalbrookdale, just outside Ironbri ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Industrial Archaeology Industrial archaeology"> Secondary sector of the economy