chronological

Chronology (from

Latin

''chronologia'', from Ancient Greek , ''chrónos'', "time"; and , ''-logia'') is the

science

of arranging events in their order of occurrence in

time

. Consider, for example, the use of a

timeline

or sequence of events. It is also "the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events".Memidex/WordNet, "chronology,
memidex.com
(accessed September 25, 2010).

Chronology is a part of periodization. It is also a part of the discipline of

history

including earth history, the earth sciences, and study of the

geologic time scale

.

Related fields

Chronology is the science of locating historical events in time. It relies upon chronometry, which is also known as timekeeping, and

historiography

, which examines the writing of history and the use of historical methods. Radiocarbon dating estimates the age of formerly living things by measuring the proportion of

carbon-14

isotope in their

carbon

content. Dendrochronology estimates the age of trees by

correlation

of the various

growth rings

in their wood to known year-by-year reference sequences in the region to reflect year-to-year climatic variation. Dendrochronology is used in turn as a

calibration

reference for radiocarbon dating curves.

Calendar and era

The familiar terms ''

calendar

'' and ''

era

'' (within the meaning of a coherent system of numbered calendar years) concern two complementary fundamental concepts of chronology. For example, during eight centuries the calendar belonging to the Christian era, which era was taken in use in the 8th century by

Bede

, was the Julian calendar, but after the year 1582 it was the Gregorian calendar.

Dionysius Exiguus

(about the year 500) was the founder of that era, which is nowadays the most widespread dating system on earth. An epoch is the date (year usually) when an era begins.

Ab Urbe condita era

''Ab Urbe condita'' is

Latin

for "from the founding of the City (

Rome

)", traditionally set in 753 BC. It was used to identify the Roman year by a few Roman historians. Modern historians use it much more frequently than the Romans themselves did; the dominant method of identifying Roman years was to name the two

consul

s who held office that year. Before the advent of the modern critical edition of historical Roman works, AUC was indiscriminately added to them by earlier editors, making it appear more widely used than it actually was.

It was used systematically for the first time only about the year 400, by the Iberian historian Orosius.

Pope Boniface IV

, in about the year 600, seems to have been the first who made a connection between these this era and Anno Domini. (AD 1 = AUC 754.)

Astronomical era

Dionysius Exiguus' Anno Domini era (which contains only calendar years ''AD'') was extended by

Bede

to the complete Christian era (which contains, in addition all calendar years ''BC'', but no ''year zero''). Ten centuries after Bede, the French astronomers Philippe de la Hire (in the year 1702) and

Jacques Cassini

(in the year 1740), purely to simplify certain calculations, put the Julian Dating System (proposed in the year 1583 by Joseph Scaliger) and with it an astronomical era into use, which contains a

leap year

zero, which precedes the year 1 (AD).

Prehistory

While of critical importance to the historian, methods of determining chronology are used in most disciplines of science, especially astronomy,

geology

, paleontology and archaeology.

In the absence of written history, with its

chronicle

s and king lists, late 19th century archaeologists found that they could develop relative chronologies based on pottery techniques and styles. In the field of Egyptology, William Flinders Petrie pioneered sequence dating to penetrate pre-dynastic Neolithic times, using groups of contemporary artefacts deposited together at a single time in graves and working backwards methodically from the earliest historical phases of Egypt. This method of dating is known as seriation.

Known wares discovered at strata in sometimes quite distant sites, the product of trade, helped extend the network of chronologies. Some cultures have retained the name applied to them in reference to characteristic forms, for lack of an idea of what they called themselves: "The Beaker People" in northern Europe during the 3rd millennium BCE, for example. The study of the means of placing pottery and other cultural artifacts into some kind of order proceeds in two phases, classification and typology: Classification creates categories for the purposes of description, and typology seeks to identify and analyse changes that allow artifacts to be placed into sequences.

Laboratory techniques developed particularly after mid-20th century helped constantly revise and refine the chronologies developed for specific cultural areas. Unrelated dating methods help reinforce a chronology, an axiom of corroborative

evidence

. Ideally, archaeological materials used for dating a site should complement each other and provide a means of cross-checking. Conclusions drawn from just one unsupported technique are usually regarded as unreliable.

Synchronism

The fundamental problem of chronology is to synchronize events. By synchronizing an event it becomes possible to relate it to the current time and to compare the event to other events. Among historians, a typical need is to synchronize the reigns of kings and leaders in order to relate the history of one country or region to that of another. For example, the Chronicon of Eusebius (325 A.D.) is one of the major works of historical synchronism. This work has two sections. The first contains narrative chronicles of nine different kingdoms: Chaldean, Assyrian, Median, Lydian, Persian, Hebrew, Greek, Peloponnesian, Asian, and Roman. The second part is a long table synchronizing the events from each of the nine kingdoms in parallel columns.

By comparing the parallel columns, the reader can determine which events were contemporaneous, or how many years separated two different events. To place all the events on the same time scale, Eusebius used an Anno Mundi (A.M.) era, meaning that events were dated from the supposed beginning of the world as computed from the

Book of Genesis

in the Hebrew Pentateuch. According to the computation Eusebius used, this occurred in 5199 B.C. The Chronicon of Eusebius was widely used in the medieval world to establish the dates and times of historical events. Subsequent chronographers, such as George Syncellus (died circa 811), analyzed and elaborated on the Chronicon by comparing with other chronologies. The last great chronographer was

Joseph Justus Scaliger

(1540-1609) who reconstructed the lost Chronicon and synchronized all of ancient history in his two major works, ''De emendatione temporum'' (1583) and ''Thesaurus temporum'' (1606). Much of modern historical datings and chronology of the ancient world ultimately derives from these two works. Scaliger invented the concept of the Julian Day which is still used as the standard unified scale of time for both historians and astronomers.

In addition to the literary methods of synchronism used by traditional chronographers such as Eusebius, Syncellus and Scaliger, it is possible to synchronize events by archaeological or astronomical means. For example, the Eclipse of Thales, described in the first book of Herodotus can potentially be used to date the Lydian War because the eclipse took place during the middle of an important battle in that war. Likewise, various eclipses and other astronomical events described in ancient records can be used to astronomically synchronize historical events. Another method to synchronize events is the use of archaeological findings, such as pottery, to do sequence dating.

See also

Examples

* Parian Chronicle
* List of timelines – specific chronologies
* Timelines of world history – overall historical chronology

Christian chronology

* Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table
*

Easter

* Lunar cycle
* Millennium question
* Paschal full moon
* Solar cycle

General

* Annals
* French revolutionary era
*

Historiography

Fiction writing

Aspects and examples of non-chronological story-telling:
* Flashback
* Flashforward
* Linearity (writing)
* Reverse chronology

Notes

References

* Hegewisch, D. H., & Marsh, J. (1837)
Introduction to historical chronology
Burlington t. C. Goodrich.
* B. E. Tumanian, "Measurement of Time in Ancient and Medieval Armenia," Journal for the History of Astronomy 5, 1974, pp. 91–98.
* Kazarian, K. A., "History of Chronology by B. E. Tumanian," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 4, 1973, p. 137
* Porter, T. M., "The Dynamics of Progress: Time, Method, and Measure". The American Historical Review, 1991.

Further reading

Published in the 18th–19th centuries

* Weeks, J. E. (1701). The gentleman's hour glass; or, An introduction to chronology; being a plain and compendious analysis of time. Dublin: James Hoey.
* Hodgson, J., Hinton, J., & Wallis, J. (1747). An introduction to chronology:: containing an account of time; also of the most remarkable cycles, epoch's, era's, periods, and moveable feasts. To which is added, a brief account of the several methods proposed for the alteration of the style, the reforming the calendar, and fixing the true time of the celebration of Easter. London: Printed for J. Hinton, at the King's Arms in St Paul's Church-yard.
* Smith, T. (1818). An introduction to chronology. New York: Samuel Wood.

Published in the 20th century

* Keller, H. R. (1934). The dictionary of dates. New York: The Macmillan company.
* Poole, R. L., & Poole, A. L. (1934). Studies in chronology and history. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
* Langer, W. L., & Gatzke, H. W. (1963). An encyclopedia of world history, ancient, medieval and modern, chronologically arranged. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
* Momigliano, A. "Pagan and Christian Historiography in the Fourth Century A.D." in A. Momigliano, ed., The Conflict Between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century,The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963, pp. 79–99
* Williams, N., & Storey, R. L. (1966). Chronology of the modern world: 1763 to the present time. London: Barrie & Rockliffe.
* Steinberg, S. H. (1967). Historical tables: 58 B.C.-A.D. 1965. London: Macmillan.
* Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1975). Chronology of world history: a calendar of principal events from 3000 BC to AD 1973. London: Collings.
* Neugebauer, O. (1975). ''A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy'' Springer-Verlag.
* Bickerman, E. J. (1980). ''The Chronology of the Ancient World''. London: Thames and Hudson.
* Whitrow, G. J. (1990). Time in history views of time from prehistory to the present day. Oxford .a. Oxford Univ. Press.
* Aitken, M. (1990). ''Science-Based Dating in Archaeology''. London: Thames and Hudson.
* Richards, E. G. (1998). ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and History''. Oxford University Press.

Published in the 21st century

* Koselleck, R. "Time and History." The Practice of Conceptual History. Timing History, Spacing Concepts. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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External links

Dating the Past


from the University of Sheffield at the Internet Archive. Accessed 2008-01-04.
* Open Library
Works related to chronology
*
* Chattopadhyay, Subhasis.
Chronicity and Temporality: A Revisionary Hermeneutics of Time
' in '' Prabuddha Bharata or Awakened India'' 120 (10):606-609 (2015). ISSN 0032-6178

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Earth sciences
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