aesthetic criticism

There are many varieties of criticism. This article describes common types that occur regularly in everyday life. For other criteria that classify criticisms, see . For more subject-specific information, see the pages on topics such as art, film, literature, theatre, or architecture.

Aesthetic criticism

Aesthetic criticism is a part of aesthetics concerned with critically judging beauty and ugliness, tastefulness and tastelessness, style and fashion, meaning and quality of design—and issues of human sentiment and affect (the evoking of pleasure and pain, likes and dislikes). Most parts of human life have an aesthetic dimension, which means there is plenty potential for criticism. Often architecture criticism is considered the highest form of aesthetic criticism, because architecture combines art, science and technology to build a pleasing home environment, a "living space" that people must inhabit everyday, more or less permanently.

An aesthetic critic however does not simply say "it's beautiful" or "it's ugly." Instead, the aim is to ''explain'' the meaning of a work of art, ''why'' something is beautiful or ugly, or how the meaning of a design should be ''interpreted'', the stronger and weaker sides of a cultural object, etc. For this purpose, aesthetic critics have a toolkit of criteria they can use in their commentary. These criteria include such things as:
* The motive behind creative activity
* Total context within which creative activity occurred
* Techniques or physical forces used to create the aesthetic effect
* Values, sentiments, interests, needs or ideals that a phenomenon communicates
* Relationship of an object of criticism to associated objects, themes, traditions, or genres
* Interaction between observer and observed, and the overall effect
* Function the object of the criticism fulfills

Using these kinds of criteria, which usually assume extensive relevant knowledge, aesthetic critics can inform their audience about the achievements and limitations of the object of aesthetic criticism. In this way, they can draw attention to aesthetic issues most people might have overlooked, educate people in their aesthetic appreciation, and stimulate debate about what kinds of aesthetic expressions are preferable.

In part, aesthetic criticism can genuinely ''prove'' aesthetic propositions;– if they concern matters of factual or logical evidence. For example, either an artist had a certain motivation, or s/he did not. But insofar as "beauty is in the eye of the beholder", there is always also a subjective element in aesthetic criticism, which is not provable, but expresses a preference, a personal taste. It may be possible to explain that preference, but it may not be possible to compare it meaningfully with other preferences.

Logical criticism

In a logical criticism, an objection is raised about an idea, argument, action or situation on the ground that it does not make rational sense (there is something wrong with it because it is illogical, it does not follow, or it violates basic conventions of meaning. Such an objection usually refers to assumptions, coherence, implications, and intent. Thus, the illogicality may involve something that:
* Is being assumed or inferred improperly, without reasonable ground
* Is internally inconsistent or self-contradictory in a way that makes it impossible to maintain all its content at once (because it would affirm and negate the same thing)
* Has implications or effects that are contrary to itself, or negate itself
* Has effects contrary to its own purpose or intent, or contrary to the purpose or intent of someone concerned with it
* involves a language that superficially makes sense, but defies logic when examined closely

Logical criticism is rooted in the basic cognitive principles that guide the behavior of humans and other sentient organisms: stimulus ''identification'' ("this is the recognized identity of X"), stimulus ''distinction'' ("this is different from that"), and stimulus ''generalization'' ("this is the same, or like that" or "this is an instance of type X"). The Greek philosopher Aristotle stated the most basic building blocks of logic as the law of identity, the law of non-contradiction and the law of the excluded middle. These are basic conditions for making meaningful sense, and for non-arbitrary representation.

Logical criticism presupposes that people accept at least the most basic rules of logic. If people believe "things mean just what they want them to mean", or if people constantly "change the meaning to suit the moment", logical criticism is not at all effective. Logical criticism assumes that there is a definite, identifiable, discoverable meaning, or at least that something can be proved meaningless (because it lacks any predictable or knowable pattern).

Logical criticism also presupposes that people agree about at least some basic facts and assumptions about the situation, or have in common at least some beliefs. It is not possible to argue about a logical criticism with somebody with whom one does not share any assumptions at all, or who is unwilling to consider at least the ''possibility'' that a given proposition might be true (or false). Very often, logical arguments take the form "suppose that X is the case", but if people reject the "suppose" or cannot imagine it, it becomes difficult to get the logical criticism off the ground.

Factual criticism

In a factual (empirical) criticism, an objection is raised about an idea, argument, action or situation on the ground that there is something wrong with the evidence of the known experience relevant to it. Typically,
* Relevant purported facts are labeled false or implausible, i.e., not facts at all.
* Relevant facts are said not to have been definitely established as true, or the likelihood that they are true, has not been established.
* Relevant facts mentioned imply different stories that cannot be reconciled. Accepting a fact would imply another fact that contradicts it in some way (this overlaps with logical criticism).
* The presentation of facts is biased. Important relevant facts are missing, or the total factual context is ignored.
* Other relevant facts, which have not been mentioned, shed a different light on the issue.
* Facts focused upon are not relevant to the purpose of those concerned.

Logical and factual criticism is generally considered important to ensure the consistency, authenticity and predictability of behavior of any kind. Without the presence of the relevant consistency, authenticity and predictability, one cannot make appropriate sense of behavior, which becomes disorienting and creates confusion, and therefore cannot guide behavioral choices effectively.

Philosophers have often debated about "what makes a fact, a fact." The basic problem with facts is that observations, made using the five senses, are never completely free from interpretation – to understand a fact as a fact, requires being able to place its meaning, which in turn requires basic cognitive categorizations not contained in the observed thing itself. A fact is concluded in the ''interaction'' between the observer and the observed.

Nevertheless, most people agree there are such things as ''the stubborn facts'', i.e., evidence no one can deny, because everybody experiences the evidence in the same way, under the same conditions. That reality is essential for effective factual criticism. If people regard factual evidence as simply a subjective interpretation of experience, then factual criticism is ineffective. Factual criticism assumes, that people agree there exists a reality beyond their personal experience, that it is possible to obtain reliable information about it, and that people ordinarily experience those facts in the same way.

Positive criticism

A positive criticism draws attention to a good or positive aspect of something that is being ignored or disregarded. People may be able to see only the negative side of something, so that it becomes necessary to highlight the positive side. A positive criticism may also be a type of self-justification or self-defense.

The term "positive criticism" is also used in the sense that the criticism is "well-meant" or "well-intentioned" ("I mean it in a positive way"). Here, the criticism intends to serve a purpose that is constructive, or that the targeted person would approve of.

The basic aim of positive criticism is usually to provide a better orientation, or frame of reference, for behavior. It provides ideas people can act on to improve the situation. At the very least, it provides more choices for behavior, and therefore potentially enlarges behavioral freedom.

A positive criticism can be stated as a positive ''alternative'' ("there are good reasons for thinking that we are better off to do Y, instead of X"). It does not necessarily say, that the option criticized is all bad, but rather that an alternative option is ''better'', or preferable.

Negative criticism

Negative criticism means voicing an objection to something, only with the purpose of showing that it is wrong, false, mistaken, nonsensical, objectionable, or disreputable. Generally, it suggests disapproval of something, or disagreement with something – it emphasizes the downsides of something. Negative criticism is also often interpreted as an attack against a person (ad hominem). That may not have been the intention, but it can be interpreted that way.

Negative criticism can have the effect that the people criticized feel attacked or insulted by it, so that they either do not take it seriously, or react badly to it. Much often depends on ''how much'' negative criticism there is, and how much criticism is transmitted at once. People can handle some negative criticism, but they may not be able to handle a whole lot of negative criticism, at least not all at once.

The downside of negative criticism is, often, that it tells people what they ''cannot'' or ''should not'' do or believe, rather than telling them what they ''can'' or ''should'' do (what possibilities or options there are). So it may be disabling, rather than enabling. People might reply to a negative criticism that "this is all very well, but I cannot do anything with it", or they might say "now what?!". Yet, negative criticism may be necessary at times, to prevent a course of action harmful to the people concerned. If people are afraid to state a negative criticism, the existing problem might get worse.

The upside of negative criticism is that it can explain what the limitations of an idea, an action or a situation are, for the sake of being realistic. Sometimes it is necessary to say "no" to something (and explain why "no" is "no").

In the modern world, negative criticism has acquired the stigma of "being negative", and people who make negative criticisms can be easily exploited or manipulated. For this reason, many people nowadays express their negative criticism simply by not saying anything, not paying attention to something or someone, or by being absent.

Constructive criticism

Constructive criticism aims to show that an intent or purpose of something is better served by an alternative approach. In this case, making the criticism is not necessarily deemed wrong, and its purpose is respected; rather, it is claimed that the same goal could be better achieved via a different route. Constructive criticisms are often suggestions for improvement – how things could be done better or more acceptably. They draw attention to how an identified problem could be solved, or how it could be solved better. Constructive criticism is more likely accepted if the criticism is timely, clear, specific, detailed and '' actionable.''J.
addle River, N.J.: Pearson Education, Inc, 1980; pp. 78–80.Katz, Ralph. Motivating Technical Professionals Today. '' IEEE Engineering Management Review'', Vol. 41, No. 1, March 2013, pp. 28–38

Both negative and constructive criticism have their appropriate uses, but often it is considered a requirement of criticism that they are ''combined''. Thus, it is often considered that those who find fault with something should also offer an option for putting it right. More generally, any rule for behavior of any kind usually implies both "do's" and "don't s". Doing something usually also implies ''not'' doing something else, and, not doing something, often implies doing something else. There is therefore a conscious choice "to do this, or do that", but not both at the same time.

So, to orient behaviour, people need to know both what is "ruled in" and what is "ruled out". If the criticism concerns only one aspect, but not the other, it may supply only incomplete information, which is not really adequate to orient behaviour or guide action. One of the most elementary reasons why a rule is ignored, flouted or subverted is, because ''either'' the positive ''or'' the negative aspect of what it means is unspecified.

Destructive criticism

Destructive criticism aims to destroy the target of criticism. (e.g., "You should shut up and follow the program."). The aim is to show that the point of view of someone else has no validity at all, or lacks any merit.

In some contexts, destructive criticism is regarded as an undesirable nuisance, a threat, or as completely unjustifiable, especially if it involves personal attacks. Destructive criticism is often criticized ''because'' it has a destructive effect, instead of a positive effect (this may also just be an accusation or allegation if there is no proof that the effect actually ''is'' destructive).

However, in political and military contexts, destructive criticisms may be essential to save resources or to save lives among one's own group. An idea in itself is not dangerous, but an idea proposed in a particular context can be very dangerous so that people feel that it should be disarmed by mercilessly criticizing it. The ultimate destructive criticism occurs when people and property are physically destroyed.

The term "destructive criticism" is also used to mean that the level, scope, or intensity of criticism is such, that it becomes mainly destructive. In this context, people believe that the criticism is so great, or there is so much criticism, that it only destroys things. For example, a debate or controversy can get out of control, so that everybody is at war with everybody else, and everybody is opposed to everybody else. In that case, it may well be that the criticism is being overdone ("overkill"). What started out as a structured dialogue to identify conflicting aspects of a situation, ends up as chaos in which nobody can agree with anyone else anymore.

Destructive criticism from parents and other authority figures causes psychological harm to children that results in lower levels of self-esteem, social acceptance, scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, global self-worth, and generally poorer self-perception. This is a significant issue. In this study of 144 children from a middle-class environment, only six children (4%) reported that they had never been subject to physical punishment or the target of rejecting, demeaning, terrorizing, destructively criticizing, or insulting statements. Some parents may ask how do you correct a child who is misbehaving if you do not criticize.Solomon, C. Ruth, and Francoise Serres. "Effects of Parental Verbal Aggression on Children's Self-esteem and School Marks." ''Child Abuse & Neglect'' (Pergamon) 23, no. 4 (1999): 339–51.

Practical criticism

Practical criticism is an objection or appraisal of the type, that something "does or does not work" in practical reality, due to some reason or cause. The focus is on useful effect. Often people say, "That might be fine in theory, but in practice it does not work." Inversely, they might show with experiment that something works well in practice, even although the theory says this is not possible – so that the theory ought to be adjusted.

Practical criticism usually refers to relevant practical experience, to reveal why an action is wrongheaded, or under what conditions it would succeed. When someone proposes an idea, others might first consider if it makes sense – but often raise concerns about practicality and consequences. For example, would relevant people or organizations be better off or worse off? Does it get in the way of other things?

Practical criticisms are effective, if people are concerned with practicalities. If, however, people are purely concerned with what things mean, or ought to mean, they may not care about whether their way of seeing things is "practical" or not. People might hold on to their beliefs or defend them, even if they are not very practical at all, because they feel those beliefs are essential to who they are.

Practical criticism usually succeeds best, if it is made on the basis of the practical experience of the critic. Somebody who has practical experience with an issue, is usually best placed to make a practical criticism.

Theoretical criticism

Theoretical criticism is concerned with the meaning of ideas, including ideas on which a practice is based. It is concerned with the coherence or meaningfulness of a theory, its correspondence to reality, the validity of its purpose, and the limitations of the viewpoint it offers. Theories can be criticized
*from the point of view of other theories ("how much sense does it make")
*internally "in their own terms" ("is it consistent")
*in terms of the experiential evidence there is for those theories ("how well does the theory correspond to the facts")
*the usefulness or practical gain of a theory.
*the moral implications of the theory for human action and behaviour.

At issue is not simply whether an idea makes sense or is consistent, but whether it makes sense and is consistent in terms of the theoretical framework it is part of. In other words, at issue is the relationship between many linked ideas. What effect does the adoption of one idea have for a lot of related ideas, and how does a theory relate to all the evidence it can be called upon to explain. A theory can consist of one major hypothesis, but usually a theory consists of a series of linked hypotheses. Adopting one hypothesis can have many effects for other related hypotheses.

The merits of theories are usually judged according to three main criteria: their ''usefulness'', their ''explanatory power'' and their ''predictive power''. A theory is useful if it can help to guide or orient activity, serves the relevant purpose, or if it helps to make sense of things. A theory with great explanatory power is a theory which is able to account for all the relevant evidence, not just some. If the assumptions made by the theory are well-taken, it can predict effects, outcomes and results quite accurately. If theories are criticized, it is usually on the ground that they are not useful, do not speak to the situation, and fail to explain or predict things properly. Usually, the best theory is the simplest theory that explains the most. A theory that becomes extremely complicated often no longer provides much guidance, because it is no longer clear that anything in particular definitely follows from it. However, theories can also be judged according to their moral implications: if the theory is adopted, how does this affect the values and behaviour of people who subscribe to it?

Theoretical criticism often occurs in the context of eclecticism and intellectual opportunism, when people more or less creatively "cobble together" in one interpretation a bunch of ideas and models that draw from a variety of sources. The criticism might be that those ideas do not belong together, that they are not compatible, or that they produce an elaborate description that fails to explain anything. The theoretical critic then attempts to redress the situation by showing that a consistent theory requires abandoning or changing some ideas, or discarding the whole eclectic combination in favour of a more consistent interpretation.

Public and private criticism

Criticism can be expressed publicly or privately. The most private criticism exists only in the mind of the critic. The most obvious reason why criticisms are not expressed, or only expressed privately, is that the critic believes public knowledge of the criticism would harm the critic or others. People often first express criticisms privately to test their validity, formulation, or reactions to them. It may require courage, conviction, or certainty to express a criticism publicly.

However, the distinction between "private" and "public" itself may be rather vague, or there may be various gradations between "absolutely private" and "definitely public". Yet even if a criticism is publicly accessible already, it may remain relatively unknown, because it is only available in a rather obscure place, or because people are simply not looking for it. The criticism may exist for years, before someone digs it out, and presents it in a forum that makes it widely known.

The degree to which criticisms are made privately or publicly, often depends on customary or legal norms for expressing criticism. Thus, the degree to which a criticism is accessible may be influenced by moral considerations, fear, the human or commercial interests at stake, or authority issues. Criticisms can of course also be expressed anonymously or under a pseudonym, in which case the identity of the critic or the source of the criticism remains unknown. In this case, the criticism exists in public, but where exactly it came from remains private. If a criticism is actively suppressed or censored, then although there may have been an attempt to publicize it, it may not become public knowledge because there was no possibility for making it public. Yet criticisms can also travel very fast "through the grapevine" so that, although they are publicly denied or ignored, everyone knows what they are, because their peers informally communicated the criticism.

Moral criticism

Moral criticism is basically concerned with the rights and wrongs of values, ethics or norms people uphold, what is good and bad about what people do, or the rights and wrongs of the conditions people face. Morality is concerned with what is good and bad for people, and how we know that. There are many forms of moral criticism, such as:
* Showing that actions taken are inconsistent or incompatible with certain values being upheld, or values deemed desirable
* Counterposing one set of values to another, with the claim that the one set is better than the other
* Arguing that certain values are intrinsically objectionable, regardless of any other values that may be relevant
* Arguing that certain values ought to be adopted or rejected for some reason
* Arguing that, for the sake of integrity, somebody should or shouldn't do something

Rational or civil morality is based on the idea that people should be treated in the same ways, in the same kind of situation; the same norm should apply to all people concerned, in the same relevant situation. The exception that proves the rule implies that there does exist a moral rule, to which it is an exception, for a definite and explicable reason. Such a morality is often assumed because, without it, human behaviour would be unpredictable or arbitrary, and cannot be relied upon; the necessary co-operation between people as social beings would be hindered. Modern jurisprudence and legal systems are, at least in principle, based on this idea. It originates from the two social norms, often expressed in religions, that one should "do unto others as one would like them to do unto oneself" and "not do unto others as one would not like them to do unto oneself." Consistent behaviour in this sense is regarded as most likely to be effective for survival and achievement in the long run, in contrast to chaotic or arbitrary behaviour ("arbitrary" in the sense that one's own interests and needs, or the interests and needs of others are not properly taken into account).

Nevertheless, values people hold often clash, and how "consistency" should be interpreted may be disputed. Hence moral criticism ranges from whether there should be a moral rule at all and the justification of a moral rule, to the interpretation of the meaning of a moral rule, and to how it is in practice applied. The debate can be pursued formally (for example by lawyers, judges, religious authorities and politicians) or informally (by any citizens of a community). Philosophers of ethics aim to shed light on moral disputes by means of critical thinking, often with the aim of clearing up moral confusions, and improving moral behaviour.

Scientific criticism

Scientific criticism is not primarily concerned with moral values, but more with quantitative or categorical values. It focuses on whether an idea can be proven true or false, or what the limits of its valid application are, quite irrespective of whether people like that or not, or what the moral implications are. For this purpose, the scientist employs logic and relevant evidence offered by experience, as well as experimentation, and gives attention to the intent and purpose of relevant activity.

Obviously a scientist is also a moral being with moral biases, but science aims to ensure that moral biases ''do not prejudice scientific findings'' (the requirement of objectivity). If scientists would ignore relevant evidence pertaining to a case, for example because of some personal bias, they could be criticized for that.

Scientists can also criticize a specific morality on scientific grounds, but in a scientific capacity they do not do so on the ground that the morality itself is intrinsically objectionable, but rather that it cannot be reconciled with the facts, i.e., it involves assumptions or valuations contrary to known logical and factual evidence.

Science is typically not concerned with judging the desirability of ends in themselves, but rather with the ''relationship'' of means and ends.
The question in scientific activity is usually to ascertain – with reasoning, study and experiment – whether the chosen means can or cannot, as a matter of objective fact, produce the envisaged result, and why that is. So a scientist mainly aims to prove with evidence and reasoning, that ''if'' one wants to achieve X, ''then'' one must do Y, or not do Z. But whether one wants to achieve X or not, may be a separate question, on which a scientist cannot adjudicate, because telling people what they ''ought'' to do with themselves falls outside the realm of scientific inquiry. At most a scientist might say that, if X is achieved, it will have specific benefits, and if it is not achieved, it will have certain harmful effects or costs for the people concerned (or vice versa).

When scientists criticize other scientists, the criticism can be very specialized and technical, so that it may not be very easy to understand the meaning – unless one is familiar with the particular scientific discipline. There are some general rules for scientific criticism, but most often each branch of scientific research has its own rules and formats for criticizing. Science is above all a search for truth, and therefore if scientists are dishonest (for example, by faking the evidence), they are not being "scientific", dishonesty then is an obvious target for criticism. Other, more common, criticisms relate to assumptions, sampling bias, methodological error, statistical issues or invalid conclusions.

Religious criticism

Religious criticism is primarily concerned with judging actions and ideas according to whether God (or the Gods, or other divine beings) would regard them as good or bad for human beings (or for the world). Normally a religion has some sacred or holy texts, which serve as an authoritative guide to interpreting actions and ideas as either good or bad. From these, religious authorities derive norms for how people ought to live and act in the world.

However, sacred texts may not always be clear, and may require interpretation. Thus, theologians ask critical questions such as, "How do we know what God wants for human beings?" They try to answer these questions by reasoning based on religious principles, rules, laws, by considering what people experience, and by "divine inspiration" through prayer and meditation.

Religious authorities such as the Pope may criticize how people behave, if the behaviour conflicts with church doctrine. In religious criticism, the motive or intention of the criticism (''why'' somebody is criticizing) is important. Criticism must be offered in the right spirit so that it has a good effect.

Religious criticism is successful if it clarifies exactly what is good and bad, and why that is, in such a way that people are convinced to do what religion says is the "right thing" to do. Religious criticism is often very difficult to do well, because people's spiritual beliefs are very personal and the personal meaning attached to spiritual matters may be rather unusual – it may not be so easy to understand it, it may not be so rational or logical, and it may not conform to a shared framework or shared interpretation. In addition, because it is a very personal matter, it may require a great deal of respectful sensitivity to approach a spiritual issue in a good way.

Scholarly criticism

Criticism is considered "scholarly" only if it conforms to scholarly standards. A scholarly critic probes deeply into a problem, looking at all relevant evidence, the quality of reasoning involved, and the uses or purposes at stake. When he considers a problem, a scholar usually becomes familiar with the relevant background literature. He tries to make sure that he cannot be accused of inconsistent reasoning, that arguments are free from factual error, and that all relevant aims, motives, and purposes are clear. A scholar also conscientiously documents "who said what and when" so that ''sources'' for all arguments are clear. Thus, the scholar tries to be as objective and fact-based as possible.

In this way, criticism is much more difficult to ignore or to refute. Most often, a scholarly publication is refereed ("screened") by other knowledgeable scholars, who critically examine the text to find possible faults, and possibly suggest alterations. In this way, scholars always try to ensure the quality of what is said. A scholarly criticism is successful if it provides a proof or refutation that nobody can rationally deny, so that most people accepted it as definitive. Much scholarly criticism does not provide truly spectacular proofs or refutations. That is difficult to do, if many bright minds have worked or are working on the same issue – but a careful, methodically developed criticism can nevertheless contribute valuable and significant information. To substantiate even a small scholarly criticism can take much research, and can require perseverance and patience from the scholar.

A scholarly critic primarily aims to improve understanding of an issue, by means of research and the criticism of research, irrespective of any prejudices about the issue. Scholarly criticism does not mean ''impartiality'' or ''neutrality''. Indeed, the very fact that someone has developed a scholarly criticism implies they are taking a partisan position. However, scholars usually submit their own considerations and findings to a public forum that evaluates criticisms on their merits and faults, with the explicit aim to contribute to the search for truth, and with the understanding that the criticism could be wrong. Thus, scholarly criticism involves the attitude that one is open to criticism.

What exactly the applicable "scholarly standards" for criticism are, can be open to debate. Nevertheless, participants in different academic disciplines or scientific specialisms usually operate with a reasonable amount of consensus about what the standards are. In general terms, such things as "lying, cheating, fraud, misinformation and misrepresentation" disqualify a criticism from being "scholarly". Scholarly criticism requires the greatest respect for truth, honesty in presenting a case, and a form of communication acceptable to the scholarly community.

Critical criticism

Critical criticism is "criticism for the sake of criticism", or criticism which voices an objection. The term was made famous by a polemical text written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

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