![Alaafin Oyo c](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Alaafin_Oyo_c._1910_-_Colorized.jpg)
The Oyo Empire was a powerful
Yoruba
The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
empire of
West Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Maurit ...
made up of parts of present-day eastern
Benin
Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the north ...
and western
Nigeria
Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
(including Southwest zone and the western half of Northcentral zone). It grew to become the largest
Yoruba
The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
-speaking state and rose through the outstanding organizational and administrative skills of the Yoruba people, wealth gained from trade, and a powerful
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
. The
Oyo Empire was one of the most politically important states in the entirety of Western Africa from the mid-17th to the late 18th century, and held sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in
Yorubaland
Yorubaland () is the homeland and cultural region of the Yoruba people in West Africa. It spans the modern-day countries of Nigeria, Togo and Benin, and covers a total land area of 142,114 km2 or about 60% of the land area of Ghana. Of this ...
, but also over nearby African states, notably the
Fon Kingdom of Dahomey
The Kingdom of Dahomey () was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. Dahomey developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a region ...
in the modern
Republic of Benin
Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Republic of Dahomey, Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burki ...
on its west.
History
Legend of origin
The origins of the Oyo Empire lie with
Oranyan (also known as Oranmiyan), the last prince of the Yoruba Kingdom of Ile-Ife (
Ife). Oranmiyan made an agreement with his brother to launch a punitive raid on their northern neighbors for insulting their father
Oduduwa
Oduduwa was a Yoruba divine king. According to tradition, he was the holder of the title of the ''Olofin'' of Ile-Ife, the Yoruba holy city. He ruled briefly in Ife, and also served as the progenitor of a number of independent royal dynasties ...
, the first
Ooni of Ife
The Ooni of Ile-Ife (Ọọ̀ni of Ilè-Ifẹ̀) is the traditional ruler of Ile-Ife and the spiritual head of the Yoruba people. The Ooni dynasty existed before the reign of Oduduwa which historians have argued to have been between the 7th-9 ...
. On the way to the battle, the brothers quarreled and the army split up.
Oranmiyan's force was too small to make a successful attack, so he wandered the southern shore until reaching Bussa. There, the local chief entertained him and provided a large snake with a magic charm attached to its throat.
The chief instructed Oranmiyan to follow the snake until it stopped somewhere for seven days and disappeared into the ground. Oranmiyan followed the advice and founded Oyo where the serpent stopped. The site is remembered as
Ajaka
Ajaka was an Oyo emperor who was twice on the throne. His father was Oranyan or Oranmiyan and his brother, according to the historian Samuel Johnson, was Shango.
Life
Ajaka lived in a fierce and tumultuous age, but he was originally a man of a p ...
. Oranmiyan made Oyo his new kingdom and became the first "oba" (meaning 'king' or 'ruler' in the
Yoruba language
Yoruba (, ; Yor. '; Ajami script, Ajami: ) is a language spoken in West Africa, primarily in South West (Nigeria), Southwestern Middle Belt, and Central Nigeria. It is spoken by the Ethnic group, ethnic Yoruba people. The number of Yoruba speake ...
) with the title of "
Alaafin of Oyo
Oyo, Oyo State, is the seat of the line of the rulers of Oyo. Their territory, a constituent rump state, is located in contemporary Nigeria. Since the 1900 political absorption into Southern Nigeria of the kingdom that it once served as a metrop ...
" (Alaafin means 'owner of the palace' in Yoruba). He left all his treasures in Ife and allowed another king to rule there.
[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 291]
At one time, Oyo-ile was at war with the Bariba of Borgu, who wanted to subjugate the new city still under construction. Orangun Ajagunla of Ila, Oranmiyan's elder brother, stormed in with his men to assist. Not long after the war was won, Oranmiyan had a son, Ajuwon Ajaka; much later Arabambi was born by the woman from Tapa (
Nupe Nupe may refer to:
*Nupe people, of Nigeria
*Nupe language, their language
*The Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state
*A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the United States
*National Union of Public Employees (Ne ...
). It is believed that the name "Sango" was given by his maternal grandfather or he adopted it from the local name for the God of Thunder. Either way the royal family was devoted to The Spirits of Thunder (Jakuta) and War (Ogun).
Early period (13th century–1535)
The founding of Oyo is regarded as 1300 CE(common era), but this is only estimated through backtracking the Chronology.
Oranmiyan, the first oba (king) of Oyo, was succeeded by Oba Ajaka, Alaafin of Oyo. Ajaka was deposed, because he lacked Yoruba military virtue and allowed his sub-chiefs too much independence. Leadership was then conferred upon Ajaka's brother,
Shango
Shango (Yoruba language: Ṣàngó, also known as Changó or Xangô in Latin America; and as Jakuta or Badé) is an Orisha, a deity in Yoruba religion. Genealogically speaking, Shango is a royal ancestor of the Yoruba as he was the third Alaafin ...
, who was later deified as the deity of thunder and lightning. Ajaka was restored after Sango's death. Ajaka returned to the throne thoroughly more warlike. His successor, Kori, managed to conquer the rest of what later historians would refer to as metropolitan Oyo.
Oyo ile
The heart of metropolitan Oyo was its capital at Oyo-Ile (also known as ''Oyo Katunga'' or ''Old Oyo'' or Oyo-oro).
[Goddard 1971, pp. 207–211.] The two most important structures in Oyo-Ile were the 'Afin,' or palace of the Oba, and his market. The palace was at the center of the city close to the Oba's market called 'Oja-Oba'. Around the capital was an enormous earthen wall for defense with 17 gates. The importance of the two large structures (the palace and the Oja Oba) signified the importance of the king in Oyo.
The Nupe occupation
Oyo had grown into a formidable inland power by the end of the 14th century. For over a century, the Yoruba state had expanded at the expense of its neighbors. During the reign of Onigbogi, Oyo suffered military defeats at the hands of the Nupe led by Tsoede.
[Stride & Ifeka p. 292] Sometime around 1535, the
Nupe Nupe may refer to:
*Nupe people, of Nigeria
*Nupe language, their language
*The Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state
*A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the United States
*National Union of Public Employees (Ne ...
occupied Oyo and forced its ruling dynasty to take refuge in the kingdom of
Borgu
Borgu is a region in north-west Nigeria and in the northern Republic of Benin. It was partitioned between Great Britain and France by the Anglo-French Convention of 1898.
People of Borgu are known as Bariba or Borgawa.
History
According to the ...
.
[Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 89.] The Nupe sacked the capital, destroying Oyo as a regional power until the early 17th century.
[Thornton 1999, p. 77.]
Imperial period (1608–1800)
The Yoruba of Oyo went through an interregnum of 80 years as an exiled dynasty after its defeat by the Nupe. They re-established Oyo to be more centralized and expansive than ever. The people created a government that established its power over a vast empire.
During the 17th century, Oyo began a long stretch of growth, becoming a major empire.
Oyo never encompassed all Yoruba people, but it was the most populous kingdom in Yoruba history.
[Alpern 1998, p. 37.]
Reconquest and expansion
The key to the Yoruba rebuilding of Oyo was a stronger military and a more centralized government. Taking a cue from their
Nupe Nupe may refer to:
*Nupe people, of Nigeria
*Nupe language, their language
*The Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state
*A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the United States
*National Union of Public Employees (Ne ...
enemies (whom they called "Tapa"), the Yoruba rearmed with armor and cavalry.
Oba Ofinran, Alaafin of Oyo, succeeded in regaining Oyo's original territory from the Nupe.
A new capital, Oyo-Igboho, was constructed, and the original became known as Old Oyo.
The next oba,
Eguguojo
Eguguojo (also known as Egunoju) was the Alaafin of Oyo during the sixteenth century. It was during his reign that the capital city was moved from Oyo ile to Oyo Igboho (New Oyo), after a protracted battle with the Nupes and also as a result of in ...
, conquered nearly all of Yorubaland.
After this, Oba
Orompoto
Orompoto (also spelled Oronpoto) was an Alaafin of the Yoruba Oyo Empire. The empire of which she ruled is located in what is modern day western and north-central Nigeria.
History
Orompoto was the sister of her predecessor, Eguguojo. She became th ...
led attacks to obliterate the Nupe to ensure Oyo was never threatened by them again.
During the reign of Oba
Ajiboyede
Ajiboyede was a successful but autocratic ''alaafin'' of the Oyo empire during the sixteenth century. He succeeded Orompoto.
Events of reign
According to Oyo tales, the empire was attacked by the King of Nupe, Lajomo, during Ajiboyede's time in of ...
, he held the first Bere festival, an event to celebrate peace in the kingdom. Celebrated regularly, it would retain much significance among the Yoruba long after the fall of Oyo.
Under his successor,
Abipa
King Abipa, also known as Ogbolu or Oba M'oro, was an Alaafin of the Oyo empire. He is believed to have ruled during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.
Early life
Abipa was the son of Egunoju and one of his queens. He was repo ...
, the Yoruba repopulated Oyo-Ile and rebuilt the original capital.
Despite a failed attempt to conquer the
Benin Empire
The Kingdom of Benin, also known as the Edo Kingdom, or the Benin Empire ( Bini: ') was a kingdom within what is now southern Nigeria. It has no historical relation to the modern republic of Benin, which was known as Dahomey from the 17th c ...
sometime between 1578 and 1608,
Oyo continued to expand. The Yoruba allowed autonomy to the southeast of metropolitan Oyo, where the non-Yoruba areas could act as a buffer between Oyo and Imperial Benin.
[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 296.] By the end of the 16th century, the
Ewe and
Aja states of modern Benin were paying tribute to Oyo.
[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 293.]
* Dahomey Wars
The reinvigorated Oyo Empire began raiding southward as early as 1682.
[Thornton 1999, p. 79.] By the end of its military expansion, Oyo's borders would reach to the coast some southwest of its capital.
[Smith 1989, p. 122.] It met little serious opposition until the early 18th century. In 1728, the Oyo Empire invaded the
Kingdom of Dahomey
The Kingdom of Dahomey () was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. Dahomey developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a region ...
in a major campaign of its cavalry.
[Smith 1989, p. 48.] Dahomey warriors, on the other hand, had no cavalry but many firearms. Their gunshots scared the Oyo cavalry horses and prevented their charging.
[Thornton 1999, p. 82.] Dahomey army also built fortifications such as trenches, which forced the Oyo army to fight as infantry.
[Thornton 1999, p. 86.] The battle lasted four days, but the Yoruba were eventually victorious after reinforcements arrived.
Dahomey was forced to pay tribute to Oyo. The Yoruba invaded Dahomey 11 times before finally subjugating the small kingdom in 1748.
* Later conquest
With its cavalry, Oyo campaigned successfully in conquest and suppression over great distances. The Oyo army was able to attack defensive fortifications, but it was harder to supply an army, and they withdrew when supplies ran out.
[Thornton 1999, p. 97.] The Oyo did not use guns in its major conquests. The military waited until the 19th century to adopt them.
In 1764, a joint Akan (Akyem)-Dahomey-Oyo force defeated an
Asante army.
The alliance victory defined borders between the neighboring states.
Oyo led a successful campaign into
Mahi territory north of Dahomey in the late 18th century.
The Yoruba also used the forces of their tributaries; for instance, they accomplished a 1784 naval blockade of Badagri with an Oyo-Dahomey-Lagos force.
Organization
At the beginning, the people were concentrated in metropolitan Oyo. With imperial expansion, Oyo reorganized to better manage its vast holdings within and outside of Yorubaland. It was divided into four layers defined by relation to the core of the empire.
[Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 95.] These layers were Metropolitan Oyo, southern Yorubaland, the Egbado Corridor and Ajaland.
*Metropolitan Oyo
Metropolitan Oyo corresponded, more or less, to the Oyo state prior to the Nupe invasion.
This was the hub of the empire, where the Yoruba spoke the Oyo dialect.
Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces, with three on the west side of the
Ogun River
The Ogun River is a waterway in Nigeria that discharges into the Lagos Lagoon.
Course and usage
The river rises in Sepeteri Oyo State near Shaki at coordinates and flows through Ogun State into Lagos State.
The river is crossed by the Ikere G ...
and three to the river's east.
Each province was supervised by a governor appointed directly by the Alaafin of Oyo.
[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 297.]
*Yorubaland
The second layer of the empire was composed of the towns closest to Oyo-Ile, which were recognized as brothers.
This area was south of metropolitan Oyo, and its Yoruba inhabitants spoke different dialects from that of Oyo.
These tributary states were led by their own rulers, titled Obas,
who were confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo.
*Egbado Corridor
The empire's third layer was the Egbado Corridor southwest of Yorubaland. This area was inhabited by the
Egba Egba may refer to:
*Egba people, a clan of the Yoruba people living in western Nigeria
* EGBA, the European Gaming and Betting Association
*Egba United Government, a late 19th century political entity of the Egba people that was located in what is ...
and
Egbado
The Ẹgbado, now Yewa, are a subgroup of the Yoruba people and inhabit the eastern area of Ogun West Senatorial District, Ogun State, in south-west Nigeria, Africa. In 1995 they changed their name to the Yewa which comes from the Yewa River whi ...
, and guaranteed Oyo's trade with the coast. The Egba and
Egbado
The Ẹgbado, now Yewa, are a subgroup of the Yoruba people and inhabit the eastern area of Ogun West Senatorial District, Ogun State, in south-west Nigeria, Africa. In 1995 they changed their name to the Yewa which comes from the Yewa River whi ...
tributaries were allowed, like their Yoruba counterparts, to rule themselves. They were, however, supervised by Ajele.
These were agents appointed by the Alaafin of Oyo to oversee his interest and monitor commerce. The lead representative of Oyo in the corridor was the Olu, ruler of the town of Ilaro.
*Ajaland
Ajaland was the last layer added to the empire. It was the most restive and distant, and kept in line with threats of expeditions against it.
This territory extended from the non-Yoruba areas west of the Egbado Corridor far into Ewe controlled territory in modern
Togo
Togo (), officially the Togolese Republic (french: République togolaise), is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, where its c ...
.
This area, like all tributary states, was allowed a fair degree of autonomy as long as taxes were paid, the orders from Oyo were strictly followed, and access to local markets was provided to Oyo merchants.
The Oyo often demanded tribute in slaves. The tributary chiefs of other kingdoms sometimes made war on others to capture slaves for this purpose.
[Alpern 1998, p. 3]
Amazons of Black Sparta, 2nd Edition: The Women Warriors of Dahomey By Stanley B. Alpern
/ref> Oyo was known to punish disobedience by wholesale slaughter of the erring community, as it accomplished in Allada
Allada is a town, arrondissement, and commune, located in the Atlantique Department of Benin.
The current town of Allada corresponds to Great Ardra (also called Grand Ardra, or Arda), which was the capital of a Fon kingdom also called Allada (t ...
in 1698.
Political structure
The Oyo Empire developed a highly sophisticated political structure to govern its territorial domains. Scholars have not determined how much of this structure existed prior to the Nupe invasion. After reemerging from exile in the early 17th century, Oyo took on a noticeably more militant character. The influence of an aggressive Yoruba culture is exemplified in the standards placed on the oba (king) and the roles of his council.
The Alaafin of Oyo
The oba (meaning 'king' in the Yoruba language) at Oyo, who was referred to as the Alaafin
Alaafin, or ''The Owner of the Palace'' in the Yoruba language, is the title of the emperor of the medieval Oyo empire and present-day Oyo town of West Africa. He ruled the old Oyo Empire which extended from the present day Benin republic to Ni ...
of Oyo (Alaafin means 'owner of the palace' in Yoruba), was the head of the empire and supreme overlord of the people.[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 298.] He was responsible for keeping tributaries safe from attack, settling internal quarrels between sub-rulers, and mediating between those sub-rulers and their people. The Alaafin of Oyo was also expected to give his subordinates honours and presents. In return, all sub-rulers had to pay homage to the Oba and renew their allegiance at annual ceremonies. The most important of these was the Bere festival, marking the acclamation of successful rule by the Alaafin. After the Bere festival, peace in Yorubaland was supposed to last for three years. The king could not be disposed of but could be compelled to commit suicide if he was no longer wanted. This was done by sending Bashorun (The prime minister) to present either an empty calabash
Calabash (; ''Lagenaria siceraria''), also known as bottle gourd, white-flowered gourd, long melon, birdhouse gourd, New Guinea bean, Tasmania bean, and opo squash, is a vine grown for its fruit. It can be either harvested young to be consumed ...
or a dish of parrot
Parrots, also known as psittacines (), are birds of the roughly 398 species in 92 genera comprising the order Psittaciformes (), found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the Psittacoid ...
's eggs to him and pass a sentence of rejection, known as ''Awon Eniyan Koo'' (i.e. the people reject you, the world rejects you and the gods reject you also). According to tradition, the Alaafin was expected to commit ritual suicide
A suicide method is any means by which a person chooses to end their life. Suicide attempts do not always result in death, and a nonfatal suicide attempt can leave the person with serious physical injuries, long-term health problems, and brai ...
thereafter.
Selection of the Alaafin
The Oyo Empire was not a purely hereditary monarchy, nor was it an absolute one. The Oyo Mesi selected the Alaafin. He was not always closely related to his predecessor, although he did have to be descended from Oranmiyan, a son of Oduduwa
Oduduwa was a Yoruba divine king. According to tradition, he was the holder of the title of the ''Olofin'' of Ile-Ife, the Yoruba holy city. He ruled briefly in Ife, and also served as the progenitor of a number of independent royal dynasties ...
, and to hail from the Ona Isokun ward (which is one of the three royal wards). At the beginning of the Oyo Empire, the Alaafin's eldest son usually succeeded his father upon the throne. This sometimes led the crown prince
A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wif ...
, known as the Aremo, to hasten the death of his father. In order to prevent this occurrence, it became traditional for the crown prince to be made to commit ritual suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and s ...
upon his father's death. Independent of the succession, the Aremo was quite powerful in his own right. For instance, by custom the Alaafin abstained from leaving the palace, except during the important festivals, which in practice curtailed his power. By contrast, the Aremo often left the palace. This led the noted historian S. Johnson to observe: "The father is the king of the palace, and the son the king for the general public". The two councils which checked the Alaafin had a tendency to select a weak Alaafin after the reign of a strong one to keep the office from becoming too powerful.[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 300.]
The Ilari
The Alaafin of Oyo appointed certain religious and government officials, who were usually eunuchs
A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.
The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
.[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 299.] These officials were known as the ''ilari'' or half-heads, because of the custom of shaving half of their heads and applying what was believed to be a magical substance into them.[Smith 1989, p. 12.] The hundreds of Ilari were divided evenly between the sexes. Junior members of the Ilari did menial tasks, while seniors acted as guards or sometimes messengers to the other world via sacrifice. Their titles related to the king, such as ''oba l'olu'' ("the king is supreme") or ' ("do not oppose him"). They carried red and green fans as credentials of their status.
All sub-courts of Oyo had Ilari who acted as both spies and taxmen. Oyo appointed these to visit and sometimes reside in Dahomey and the Egbado Corridor to collect taxes and spy on Dahomey's military successes, so that the Alaafin of Oyo could get his cut.[Smith 1989, p. 10.]
The Councils
While the Alaafin of Oyo was supreme overlord of the people, he was not without checks on his power. The Oyo Mesi The Oyo Mesi is the
privy council of Oyo, Oyo State, Oyo, a Yoruba people, Yoruba List of Nigerian traditional states, traditional state in Southwestern Nigeria. It dates to the medieval period, when it served as the government of a powerful pre-co ...
and the Yoruba Earth cult known as Ogboni
Ogboni (also known as Osugbo in Ijèbú) is a fraternal institution indigenous to the Yoruba-speaking polities of Nigeria, Republic of Bénin and Togo, as well as among the Edo people. The society performs a range of political and religious fun ...
kept the Oba's power in check. The Oyo Mesi spoke for the politicians while the Ogboni spoke for the people and were backed by the power of religion. The power of the Alaafin of Oyo in relation to the Oyo Mesi and Ogboni depended on his personal character and political shrewdness.
Oyo Mesi
The Oyo Mesi were seven principal councillors of the state. They constituted the Electoral Council and possessed legislative powers. Led by the Bashorun, acting as prime minister, and consisting of the Agbaakin, the Samu, the Alapini, the Laguna, the Akiniku and the Ashipa, they represented the voice of the nation and had the chief responsibility of protecting the interests of the empire. The Alaafin was required to take counsel from them whenever any important matter affecting the state occurred.[Afolayan, Funso. (2000) "Kingdoms of West Africa", ''Africa Vol. 1'' ed. by Tony Falola, p. 173.] Each chief had a state duty to perform at court every morning and afternoon. Each also had a deputy whom they would send to the Alaafin if their absence was unavoidable. The Oyo Mesi developed as a check on the Alaafin's power, preventing the Alaafin from being an autocrat
Autocracy is a system of government in which absolute power over a state is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject neither to external legal restraints nor to regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perh ...
; they compelled many Alaafins to commit suicide during the 17th and 18th centuries.
The head of the council of Oyo Mesi, the Bashorun, consulted the Ifa
IFA or Ifa may refer to:
Organisations
Economics
* Independent financial adviser, a type of financial services professional in the UK
* Index Fund Advisors
* Institute and Faculty of Actuaries, representing actuaries in the UK
* Institute of Ac ...
oracle prior to the royal succession for approval from the gods. New alaafins of Oyo were therefore seen as being appointed by the gods. They were regarded as ''Ekeji Orisa,'' meaning "deputy of the gods." The Bashorun had final say on the nomination of the new Alaafin, his power rivaling that of the king himself. For example, the Bashorun orchestrated many religious festivals; he did this in addition to being commander-in-chief of the army, which gave him considerable independent religious authority.
Chief among the responsibilities of the Bashorun was the all important festival of Orun. This religious divination, held every year, was to determine if the members of the Mesi still held favour with the Alaafin. If the council decided on the disapproval of the Alaafin, the Bashorun presented the Alaafin with an empty calabash, or parrot's eggs, as a sign that he must commit suicide. This was the only way to remove the Alaafin because he could not legally be deposed. Once given the calabash or the parrot's eggs, the Alaafin, his eldest son the Aremo, and his personal counselor within the Oyo Mesi, the Asamu, all had to commit suicide in order to renew the government. The suicide ceremony took place during the Orun festival.
The Ogboni
The Oyo Mesi did not enjoy an absolute power either. While the Oyo Mesi wielded political influence, the Ogboni represented the popular opinion backed by the authority of religion, and therefore the views of the Oyo Mesi could be moderated by the Ogboni. There were checks and balances on the power of the Alaafin and the Oyo Mesi and thus no one was arrogated absolute power. The Ogboni was a very powerful secret society composed of aristocratic freemen noted for their age, wisdom and importance in religious and political affairs. Its members enjoyed immense power over the common people due to their religious station. A testament to how widespread the institution was is the fact that there were (and still are) Ogboni councils at nearly all sub-courts within Yorubaland. Aside from their duties in respect to the worship of the earth, they were responsible for judging any case dealing with the spilling of blood. The leader of the Ogboni, the Oluwo, had the unqualified right of direct access to the Alaafin of Oyo on any matter.
Military
There was a high degree of professionalism in the army of the Oyo Empire.[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 301.] Its military success was due in large part to its cavalry as well as the leadership and courage of Oyo officers and warriors. Because its main geographic focus was north of the forest, Oyo enjoyed easier farming and thus a steady growth in population. This contributed to Oyo's ability to consistently field a large force. There was also an entrenched military culture in Oyo where victory was obligatory and defeat carried the duty of committing suicide. This do-or-die policy no doubt contributed to the military aggressiveness of Oyo's generals.
Cavalry
The Oyo Empire was the only Yoruba state to adopt cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
; it did so because most of its territory was in the northern savannah
A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the Canopy (forest), canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to rea ...
. The origin of the cavalry is unclear; however, the Nupe Nupe may refer to:
*Nupe people, of Nigeria
*Nupe language, their language
*The Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state
*A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the United States
*National Union of Public Employees (Ne ...
, Borgu
Borgu is a region in north-west Nigeria and in the northern Republic of Benin. It was partitioned between Great Britain and France by the Anglo-French Convention of 1898.
People of Borgu are known as Bariba or Borgawa.
History
According to the ...
and Hausa
Hausa may refer to:
* Hausa people, an ethnic group of West Africa
* Hausa language, spoken in West Africa
* Hausa Kingdoms, a historical collection of Hausa city-states
* Hausa (horse) or Dongola horse, an African breed of riding horse
See also
* ...
in neighbouring territories also used cavalry and may have had the same historical source.[Law 1975, pp. 1–15.] Oyo was able to purchase horses from the north and maintain them in metropolitan Oyo because of partial freedom from the tsetse fly
Tsetse ( , or ) (sometimes spelled tzetze; also known as tik-tik flies), are large, biting flies that inhabit much of tropical Africa. Tsetse flies include all the species in the genus ''Glossina'', which are placed in their own family, Glo ...
.[Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 302.] Cavalry was the long arm of the Oyo Empire. Late 16th and 17th century expeditions were composed entirely of cavalry. There were drawbacks to this. Oyo could not maintain its cavalry army in the south but could raid at will.
Cavalry in highly developed societies such as Oyo was divided into light and heavy. Heavy cavalry on larger imported horses was armed with heavy thrusting lance
A lance is a spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier ( lancer). In ancient and medieval warfare, it evolved into the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unlike si ...
s or spears and also with sword
A sword is an edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed ti ...
s. Light cavalry on smaller indigenous ponies was armed with clubs or bows.[Smith 1989, p. 50.]
Infantry
Infantry in the region around the Oyo Empire was uniform in both armour and armament. All infantry in the region carried shields, swords and lances of one type or another. Shields were four feet tall and two feet wide and made of elephant or ox hide.[Thornton 1999, p. 80.] A heavy sword was the main armament for close combat. The Yoruba and their neighbours used triple barbed javelins which could be thrown accurately from about 30 paces.
Structure
The Oyo Empire, like many empires before it, used both local and tributary forces to expand its domains. The structure of the Oyo military prior to its imperial period was simple and closer aligned to the central government in metropolitan Oyo. This may have been adequate in the 14th century when Oyo controlled only its heartland, but to make and maintain conquest farther away, the structure underwent several changes.
The Eso
Oyo maintained a semi-standing army of specialist cavalry soldiers called the ''Eso'', the ''Esho'' or, formally, the Eso of Ikoyi.[Smith 1989, p. 56.] These were 70 junior war chiefs who were nominated by the Oyo Mesi and confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo. The Eso were appointed for their military skill without regard to heritage, although de facto dynasties of Eso were also known to exist. The Eso were led by the Are-Ona-Kakanfo, and were famous for living by a warrior code
A warrior is a person specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior aristocracies, class, or caste.
History
Warriors seem to have been pr ...
that was comparable to the Latin dictum infra dignitatem.
Are Ona Kakanfo
After Oyo's return from exile, the post of Are-Ona-Kakanfo was established as the supreme military commander.[Smith 1989, p. 53.] He was required to live in a frontier province of great importance to keep an eye on the enemy and to keep him from usurping the throne. During Oyo's imperial period, the Are-Ona-Kakanfo personally commanded the army in the field on all campaigns.
Metropolitan Army
Since the Are-Ona-Kakanfo could not reside near the capital, arrangements had to be made for the latter's protection in case of emergency. Forces inside metropolitan Oyo were commanded by the Bashorun, leading member of the Oyo Mesi. As stated earlier, Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces divided evenly by a river. Provincial forces were thus grouped into two armies, under the ''Onikoyi'' and the ''Okere'' for the east and west side of the river respectively. Lesser war chiefs were known as Balogun, a title carried on by the soldiers of Oyo's successor state, Ibadan
Ibadan (, ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Oyo State, in Nigeria. It is the third-largest city by population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano, with a total population of 3,649,000 as of 2021, and over 6 million people within its me ...
.[Smith 1989, p. 57.]
Tributary Army
Tributary leaders and provincial governors were responsible for collecting tribute and contributing troops under local generalship to the imperial army in times of emergency. Occasionally, tributary leaders would be ordered to attack neighbors even without the backing of the main imperial army. These forces were often utilized in Oyo's distant campaigns on the coast or against other states.
Commerce
Oyo became the southern emporium of the Trans-Saharan trade. Exchanges were made in salt, leather, horses, kola nut
The term kola nut usually refers to the seeds of certain species of plant of the genus ''Cola'', placed formerly in the cocoa family Sterculiaceae and now usually subsumed in the mallow family Malvaceae (as subfamily Sterculioideae). These cola ...
s, ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is ...
, cloth and slaves. The Yoruba of metropolitan Oyo were also highly skilled in craft making and iron work. Aside from taxes on trade products coming in and out of the empire, Oyo also became wealthy off the taxes imposed on its tributaries. Taxes on the kingdom of Dahomey alone brought in an amount estimated at 1 million U.S. dollars a year.
Zenith
By 1680, the Oyo Empire spanned over 150,000 square kilometers.[Thornton 1998, p. 104.] It reached the height of its power in the 18th century. Despite its violent creation, it was held together by mutual self-interest. The government was able to provide unity for a vast area through a combination of local autonomy and imperial authority.
Unlike the great savannah empires, of which Oyo may not be called a successor since it was a successor of Ife, there was little if any Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
ic influence in the empire. It is known that at least some Muslim officials were kept in Metropolitan Oyo,[Smith 1989, p. 20.] and men capable of writing and calculating in Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
were reported by French traders in 1787.
Decline
Many believe the decline of the Oyo empire had started as early as 1754 with the dynastic intrigues and palace coups sponsored by the Oyo Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
Gaha. Gaha, in his quest for absolute power, conspired with the Oyo Mesi and probably to some extent the Ogboni to force four successive Alaafins to commit ritual suicide after they had been presented with the symbolic parrot's eggs. Between June and October 1754 alone, two Alaafins had been forced to commit suicide by Gaha. Because of this, Alaafin Awonbioju spent 130 days on the throne, while Alaafin Labisi only spent 17 days on the throne. Gaha's treachery was not ended until 1774 during the reign of Alaafin Abiodun, the fifth Alaafin he served. Gaha was subsequently executed by Abiodun but the instability that had been brought about by these intrigues had further weakened Oyo.
Alaafin Abiodun during his reign had also conducted failed campaigns against Borgu in 1783 and Nupe in 1789, losing the equivalent of 11 and 13 generals and their men respectively. Abiodun was subsequently murdered by his own son Awole, who subsequently ascended his father's throne.
The events that led to the secession of Ilorin began in 1793. Ilorin was a war camp headed by the Are-Ona Kakanfo Afonja. Afonja took cause with Awole when the latter commanded him to attack Alaafin Abiodun's maternal home, Iwere-Ile. Afonja, being bound by an oath and also desirous not to fall under a curse from a previous Alaafin made to the effect that any Aare Ona Kakanfo who attacked Iwere-Ile (his paternal home) was to die miserably, refused to comply. A further cause was given in 1795, when Awole ordered Afonja to attack the market town of Apomu, a part of Ile-Ife. All Alaafins, due to the Yoruba belief that Ife was the spiritual home of the Yorubas, were previously made to swear an oath never to attack Ife. Afonja carried out Awole's order and sacked Apomu, but on the return of the army from the campaign he marched on the capital Oyo-Ile (which was itself a taboo), and demanded that Awole abdicate. Awole eventually committed ritual suicide.
After the death of Awole, there was a scramble for the throne by numerous contenders; some were reported to have spent less than six months on the throne; there was also a period of interregnum of almost twenty years where the various factions could not agree on a candidate. This power vacuum led to the ascendancy of powerful military and regional commanders like Adegun, the Onikoyi and Solagberu, the Otun Are-Ona Kakanfo. Shehu Alimi, a Fulani
The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
chief who was the leader of the growing Muslim population in Oyo, also rose to power at this time. These new elements had lost regard for the office of the Alaafin due to the various political wranglings and the lack of a central authority at the time; this situation eventually led to Afonja seceding Ilorin from Oyo in 1817 with the help of Oyo Muslims. In 1823, after Afonja had been killed by his erstwhile allies Shehu Alimi and Solagberu (who was himself later killed by Alimi's son), Ilorin became part of the Sokoto Caliphate. By the time Captain Hugh Clapperton
Bain Hugh Clapperton (18 May 1788 – 13 April 1827) was a Scotland, Scottish naval officer and explorer of West and Central Africa.
Early career
Clapperton was born in Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father, George Clapperton, was a surgeon. He ...
visited Oyo-Ile in 1825 during the reign of Alaafin Majotu, the empire was already in a state of decline. Clapperton's party recorded passing numerous Oyo villages burned by the Fulani of Ilorin while Majotu had also sought the help of the English king and the Oba of Benin in putting down the Ilorin rebellion. Clapperton also noticed a shortage of horses, even though the Oyo were renowned as a great cavalry force; this might have something to do with the fact that most of the empire's soldiers and hence cavalry were stationed at Ilorin under the command of Afonja (and later Alimi's successors).
Ilorin then besieged Offa and started raiding, burning and pillaging villages in Oyo, eventually destroying the capital Oyo-Ile in 1835.
Loss of the Egbado Corridor
As Oyo tore itself apart via political intrigue, its vassals began taking advantage of the situation to press for independence. The Egba, under the leadership of a war chief called Lishabi, massacred the Ilari stationed in their area and drove off an Oyo punitive force.
The Dahomey Revolt
In 1823 Dahomey was reported to have raided villages that were under the protection of Oyo. Oyo immediately demanded a huge tribute from King Gezo
Ghezo, also spelled Gezo, was King of Dahomey (present-day Republic of Benin) from 1818 until 1859. Ghezo replaced his brother Adandozan (who ruled from 1797 to 1818) as king through a coup with the assistance of the Brazilian slave trader F ...
for the unauthorized incursion, to which Gezo dispatched his Brazilian viceroy, Chacha Francisco Félix de Sousa
Francisco Félix de Souza (4 October 1754 – 8 May 1849) was a Brazilian slave trader who was deeply influential in the regional politics of pre-colonial West Africa (namely, current-day Nigeria, Benin, Ghana and Togo). He founded Afro-Braz ...
, to the Alaafin at Oyo to make peace. The peace talks eventually broke down, and Oyo subsequently attacked Dahomey.[."Royal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer" Cape coast, 1822-3] The Oyo army was decisively defeated, ending Oyo's hegemony over Dahomey.[Alpern 1998, p. 166.] After gaining its independence, Dahomey began raiding the corridor.
Ago d'Oyo
After the destruction of Oyo-Ile, the capital was moved further south, to Ago d'Oyo. Oba Atiba sought to preserve what remained of Oyo by placing on Ibadan the duty of protecting the capital from the Ilorin in the north and northeast.[Smith 1989, p. 123.] He also attempted to get the Ijaye to protect Oyo from the west against the Dahomeans. The center of Yoruba power moved further south to Ibadan
Ibadan (, ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Oyo State, in Nigeria. It is the third-largest city by population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano, with a total population of 3,649,000 as of 2021, and over 6 million people within its me ...
, a Yoruba war camp settled by Oyo commanders in 1830.
Final demise
Atiba's gambit failed, and Oyo never regained its prominence in the region. The Oba, otherwise called Atiba Atobatele
Alaafin Atiba Atobatele was a prince of the Oyo empire. He was the son of Alaafin Abiodun of Oyo and Eni-olufan from Akeitan.
Growing up, he was involved in thievery and kidnapping before relocating to Ago town and raising a private army. After ...
, died in 1859; His first son Adelu Alao Agunloye became the Alaafin after him 1859 - 1876, followed by his 4th son Alowolodu Adeyemi I, the third Alaafin to rule in the present Oyo who also died in 1905. Others who ruled after Adeyemi 1 were Lawani Agogo ija, Ladigbolu 1, Adeyemi II, Gbadegesin and Lamidi Adeyemi who died in 2022. During the colonial period, the Yorubas were one of the most urbanized groups in Africa. About 22% of the population lived in large areas with populations exceeding 100,000, and over 50% lived in cities made up of 25,000 or more people. The index of urbanization in 1950 was close to that of the United States, excluding Ilorin. The Yoruba continue to be the most urbanized African ethnic group today. Prominent contemporary cities include Oyo, Ibadan
Ibadan (, ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Oyo State, in Nigeria. It is the third-largest city by population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano, with a total population of 3,649,000 as of 2021, and over 6 million people within its me ...
, Osogbo
Osogbo (also ''Oṣogbo'', rarely ''Oshogbo'') is a city in Nigeria. It became the capital city of Osun State in 1991. Osogbo city seats the Headquarters of both Osogbo Local Government Area (situated at Oke Baale Area of the city) and Olorund ...
, and Ogbomoso
Ogbomosho (also Ògbómọ̀ṣọ́) is a city in Oyo State, south-western Nigeria. It was founded in the mid 17th century. The population was approximately 454,690 in the 2006 census. It is the second largest city in Oyo State and also among ...
, which are some of the major cities that flourished after old Oyo's collapse.[Bascom 1962, pp. 699-709.]
A remnant of the monarchy continues to exist as one of the traditional states of contemporary Nigeria.
File:Araldiz Manno 259.svg, Solomon's knot
Solomon's knot () is a traditional decorative motif used since ancient times, and found in many cultures. Despite the name, it is classified as a link, and is not a true knot according to the definitions of mathematical knot theory.
Struc ...
, a quasi-heraldic
Heraldry is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings (known as armory), as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree. Armory, the best-known branc ...
symbol of Yoruba royalty
File:Solomons-knot-quadruple.svg, Quadruple Solomon's knot
Solomon's knot () is a traditional decorative motif used since ancient times, and found in many cultures. Despite the name, it is classified as a link, and is not a true knot according to the definitions of mathematical knot theory.
Struc ...
File:VeveOgoun.svg, The veve
A ''veve'' (also spelled ''vèvè'' or ''vevè'') is a religious symbol commonly used in different branches of Vodun throughout the African diaspora, such as Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo. The ''veve'' acts as a "beacon" for the ''loa'', a ...
of Ogun
Ogun or Ogoun (Yoruba: Ògún, Portuguese: Ogum, Gu; also spelled Oggun or Ogou; known as Ogún or Ogum in Latin America) is a spirit that appears in several African religions. He attempted to seize the throne after the demise of Obatala, who re ...
, war god of the Yoruba
The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
and totem of the Alaafins of Oyo
See also
* Oyotunji African Village
*Rulers of the Yoruba state of Oyo
Oyo, Oyo State, is the seat of the line of the rulers of Oyo. Their territory, a constituent rump state, is located in contemporary Nigeria. Since the 1900 political absorption into Southern Nigeria of the kingdom that it once served as a metro ...
*History of Nigeria
The history of Nigeria can be traced to the earliest inhabitants whose remains date from at least 13,000 BC through early civilizations such as the Nok culture which began around 1500 BC. Numerous ancient African civilizations settled in the reg ...
Notes
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*Easley, Dr. Larry. "The Four Forest States of Africa." Oyo Empire. Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau. 2 Mar. 2009.
*Kehnide Salami, Yunusa Ph.D.
The Democratic Structure of Yoruba Political-Cultural Heritage.
Department of Philosophy Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. 29 Apr. 2009.
*Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Limited, 1995
*Fasanya, Akin (2004). "The Original Religion of the Yorubas". http://www.laits.utexas.edu/africa/2004/database/fasanya.html
*
External links
{{Authority control
14th-century establishments in Africa
States and territories established in the 14th century
Countries in medieval Africa
Nigerian traditional states
Yoruba history
History of Nigeria
States and territories disestablished in 1905
14th-century establishments in Nigeria
16th century in Nigeria
17th century in Nigeria
18th century in Nigeria
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