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Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of
Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Wa ...
. He contributed greatly to
Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Warring States period (), during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developmen ...
and fundamentally reshaped the Chinese worldview. His works include his editing of and commentaries to the
Four Books The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism. Four Books The Four Books () are C ...
(which later formed the curriculum of the
civil service exam Civil service examinations are examinations implemented in various countries for recruitment and admission to the civil service. They are intended as a method to achieve an effective, rational public administration on a merit system for recruit ...
in
Imperial China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapte ...
from 1313 to 1905), his writings on the process of the "investigation of things" (), and his development of meditation as a method for self-cultivation. He was a scholar with a wide learning in the classics, commentaries, histories and other writings of his predecessors. In his lifetime he was able to serve multiple times as a government official, although he avoided public office for most of his adult life. He also wrote, compiled and edited almost a hundred books and corresponded with dozens of other scholars. He acted as a teacher to groups of students, many of whom chose to study under him for years. He built upon the teachings of the Cheng brothers and others; and further developed their metaphysical theories in regards to principle (''lǐ'' 理) and vital force (''qì'' 氣). His followers recorded thousands of his conversations in writing.


Life

Zhu Xi, whose family originated in Wuyuan County,
Huizhou Huizhou ( zh, c= ) is a city in central-east Guangdong Province, China, forty-three miles north of Hong Kong. Huizhou borders the provincial capital of Guangzhou to the west, Shenzhen and Dongguan to the southwest, Shaoguan to the north, Heyu ...
(in modern
Jiangxi Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
province), was born in
Fujian Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capi ...
, where his father worked as the subprefectural sheriff. After his father was forced from office due to his opposition to the government appeasement policy towards the Jurchen in 1140, Zhu Xi received instruction from his father at home. Many anecdotes attest that he was a highly precocious child. It was recorded that at age five he ventured to ask what lay beyond Heaven, and by eight he understood the significance of the Classic of Filiality (Xiaojing). As a youth, he was inspired by Mencius’ proposition that all people could become a sage. Upon his father's death in 1143, he studied with his father's friends Hu Xian, Liu Zihui, and Liu Mianzhi. In 1148, at the age of 19, Zhu Xi passed the
Imperial Examination The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
and became a presented scholar (''
jinshi ''Jinshi'' () was the highest and final degree in the imperial examination in Imperial China. The examination was usually taken in the imperial capital in the palace, and was also called the Metropolitan Exam. Recipients are sometimes referr ...
'' ). Zhu Xi's first official dispatch position was as Subprefectural Registrar of Tong'an (), which he served from 1153 - 1156. From 1153 he began to study under Li Tong, who followed the Neo-Confucian tradition of
Cheng Hao Chéng Hào (, 1032–1085), Courtesy name Bóchún (), was a Chinese philosopher and politician from Luoyang, China. In his youth, he and his younger brother Cheng Yi were students of Zhou Dunyi, one of the architects of Neo-Confucian c ...
and Cheng Yi, and formally became his student in 1160. In 1179, after not serving in an official capacity since 1156, Zhu Xi was appointed Prefect of Nankang Military District (), where he revived
White Deer Grotto Academy The White Deer Grotto Academy (, Gan: Pak-Luk-Tung Su-yon, sometimes translated as White Deer Cave Academy or White Deer Hollow Academy) is a former school at the foot of Wulou Peak in Lushan, now in Jiujiang, Jiangxi province. It was one of th ...
. and got demoted three years later for attacking the incompetency and corruption of some influential officials. There were several instances of receiving an appointment and subsequently being demoted. Upon dismissal from his last appointment, he was accused of numerous crimes and a petition was made for his execution. Much of this opposition was headed by
Han Tuozhou Han Tuozhou (; November 6, 1152 – November 24, 1207) was a Chinese politician of the Southern Song dynasty, who served as a chancellor under Emperor Ningzong. He was responsible for Southern Song efforts to recover territories lost in north ...
, the Prime Minister, who was a political rival of Zhu's. Even though his teachings had been severely attacked by establishment figures, almost a thousand brave people attended his funeral. After the death of Han Tuozhou, Zhu's successor
Zhen Dexiu Zhen Dexiu (; 1178 – 1235) was a Chinese politician and philosopher during the Southern Song dynasty. His Neo-Confucianist views were influential at court and together with his colleague Wei Liaoweng he was instrumental in making Neo-Confucian ...
, together with
Wei Liaoweng Wei Liaoweng (; 1178–1237) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Southern Song Dynasty. He and his colleague Zhen Dexiu were instrumental in establishing Neo-Confucianism as the dominant political philosophy of the court at the time. ...
, made Zhu's branch of Neo-Confucianism the dominant philosophy at the Song Court. In 1208, eight years after his death, Emperor Ningzong of Song rehabilitated Zhu Xi and honored him with the
posthumous name A posthumous name is an honorary name given mostly to the notable dead in East Asian culture. It is predominantly practiced in East Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Thailand. Reflecting on the person's accomplishments or ...
of Wen Gong (), meaning “Venerable gentleman of culture”. Around 1228,
Emperor Lizong of Song Emperor Lizong of Song (26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264), personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264. His original name was ...
honored him with the posthumous
noble title Traditional rank amongst European royalty, peers, and nobility is rooted in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Although they vary over time and among geographic regions (for example, one region's prince might be equal to another's grand duk ...
Duke Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are ran ...
of (State) Hui (). In 1241, a memorial tablet to Zhu Xi was placed in the
Confucian Temple A temple of Confucius or Confucian temple is a temple for the veneration of Confucius and the sages and philosophers of Confucianism in Chinese folk religion and other East Asian religions. They were formerly the site of the administration ...
at
Qufu Qufu ( ; ) is a city in southwestern Shandong province, East China. It is located about south of the provincial capital Jinan and northeast of the prefectural seat at Jining. Qufu has an area of 815 square kilometers, and a total population of ...
, thereby elevating him to
Confucian sainthood Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...
. Today, Zhu Xi is venerated as one of the "
Twelve Philosophers The Twelve Philosophers or Wise Ones ( Chinese: , ''Shí'èr Zhé'') are 12 eminent philosophers in the Chinese Confucian tradition. They are traditionally accounted a kind of sainthood and their spirit tablets are prominently placed in Confucian ...
" () of
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
. Modern
Sinologists Sinology, or Chinese studies, is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of China primarily through Chinese philosophy, language, literature, culture and history and often refers to Western scholarship. Its origin "may be traced to the ex ...
and Chinese often refer to him as Zhu Wen Gong () in lieu of his name.


Teachings


The Four Books

During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be unorthodox. Rather than focusing on the ''
I Ching The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zho ...
'' like other Neo-Confucians, he chose to emphasize the Four Books: the ''
Great Learning The ''Great Learning'' or ''Daxue'' was one of the "Four Books" in Confucianism attributed to one of Confucius' disciples, Zengzi. The ''Great Learning'' had come from a chapter in the ''Book of Rites'' which formed one of the Five Classics. I ...
'', the ''
Doctrine of the Mean The ''Doctrine of the Mean'' or ''Zhongyong'' is one of the Four Books of classical Chinese philosophy and a central doctrine of Confucianism. The text is attributed to Zisi (Kong Ji), the only grandson of Confucius (Kong Zi). It was originall ...
'', the ''
Analects of Confucius The ''Analects'' (; ; Old Chinese: '' ŋ(r)aʔ''; meaning "Selected Sayings"), also known as the ''Analects of Confucius'', the ''Sayings of Confucius'', or the ''Lun Yu'', is an ancient Chinese book composed of a large collection of sayings a ...
'', and the ''
Mencius Mencius ( ); born Mèng Kē (); or Mèngzǐ (; 372–289 BC) was a Chinese Confucianism, Confucian Chinese philosophy, philosopher who has often been described as the "second Sage", that is, second to Confucius himself. He is part of Confuc ...
'' as the core curriculum for aspiring scholar officials. For all these classics he wrote extensive commentaries that were not widely recognized in his time; however, they later became accepted as the standard commentaries. The Four Books served as the basis of civil service examinations up until 1905,Chan 1963: 589. and education in the classics often began with Zhu Xi's commentaries as the cornerstone for understanding them. The sources of Zhu Xi's new approach to the Confucian curriculum have been found in several works of the Cheng brothers. Zhu Xi “codified the Cheng brothers’ teachings and reworked them into his own philosophical program,” moving “from philology to philosophy.”


Vital force, principle, and the Supreme Ultimate

''Zhu'' Xi maintained that all things are brought into being by the union of two universal aspects of reality: '' qi'' (气 Wade-Giles: ch‘i), sometimes translated as vital (or physical, material) force; and '' li'' (理), sometimes translated as rational principle (or law). The source and sum of ''li'' is the ''Taiji'' (太极 Wade-Giles: T‘ai Chi), meaning the Supreme Ultimate. The source of ''qi'' is not so clearly stated by Zhu Xi, leading some authorities to maintain that he was a metaphysical monist and others to maintain that he was a metaphysical dualist. According to Zhu Xi's theory, every physical object and every person has its ''li'' and therefore has contact in its metaphysical core with the ''Taiji''. What is referred to as the human soul, mind, or spirit is understood as the ''Taiji'', or the supreme creative principle, as it works its way out in a person. ''Qi'' and ''li'' operate together in mutual dependence. They are mutually aspective in all creatures in the universe. These two aspects are manifested in the creation of substantial entities. When their activity is waxing (rapid or expansive), that is the ''
yang Yang may refer to: * Yang, in yin and yang, one half of the two symbolic polarities in Chinese philosophy * Korean yang, former unit of currency of Korea from 1892 to 1902 * YANG, a data modeling language for the NETCONF network configuration ...
'' energy mode. When their activity is waning (slow or contractive), that is the ''
yin Yin may refer to: *the dark force in the yin and yang from traditional Chinese philosophy and medicine *Yīn (surname) (), a Chinese surname *Yǐn (surname) (), a Chinese surname *Shang dynasty, also known as the Yin dynasty **Yinxu or Yin, the S ...
'' energy mode. The yang and yin phases constantly interact, each gaining and losing dominance over the other. In the process of the waxing and waning, the alternation of these fundamental vibrations, the so-called five elements (fire, water, wood, metal, and earth) evolve. Zhu Xi argues that ''li'' existed even before Heaven and Earth In terms of ''li'' and ''qi'', Zhu Xi's system strongly resembles
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
ideas of 理 ''li'' (principle) and 事 ''shi'' (affairs, matters), though Zhu Xi and his followers strongly argued that they were not copying Buddhist ideas. Instead, they held, they were using concepts already present long before in the ''I Ching.'' Zhu Xi discussed how he saw the Supreme Ultimate concept to be compatible with principle of Taoism, but his concept of ''Taiji'' was different from the understanding of ''Tao'' in Daoism. Where ''Taiji'' is a differentiating principle that results in the emergence of something new, ''Dao'' is still and silent, operating to reduce all things to equality and indistinguishability. He argued that there is a central harmony that is not static or empty but was dynamic, and that the Supreme Ultimate is itself in constant creative activity.


Human nature

Zhu Xi considered the earlier Confucian
Xun Zi Xun Kuang (; BCE), better known as Xunzi (; ), was a Chinese philosopher of Confucianism who lived during the late Warring States period. After his predecessors Confucius and Mencius, Xunzi is often ranked as the third great Confucian philosop ...
to be a heretic for departing from
Mencius Mencius ( ); born Mèng Kē (); or Mèngzǐ (; 372–289 BC) was a Chinese Confucianism, Confucian Chinese philosophy, philosopher who has often been described as the "second Sage", that is, second to Confucius himself. He is part of Confuc ...
' idea of innate human goodness. Even if people displayed immoral behaviour, the supreme regulative principle was good. The cause of immoral actions is ''qi''. Zhu Xi's metaphysics is that everything contains ''li'' and ''qi''. ''Li'' is the principle that is in everything and governs the universe. Each person has a perfect ''li''. As such, individuals should act in perfect accordance with morality. However, while ''li'' is the underlying structure, ''qi'' is also part of everything. ''Qi'' obscures our perfect moral nature. The task of moral cultivation is to clear our ''qi.'' If our ''qi'' is clear and balanced, then we will act in a perfectly moral way.


Heart/mind

Clarity of mind and purity of heart are ideal in Confucian philosophy. In the following poem, "Reflections While Reading - 1" Zhu Xi illustrates this concept by comparing the mind to a mirror, left covered until needed that simply reflects the world around it, staying clear by the flowing waters symbolizing the ''Tao''. In Chinese, the mind was sometimes called "the square inch," which is the literal translation of the term alluded to in the beginning of the poem.Red Pine, Poems of the Masters, Copper Canyon Press, 2003, p. 164.


Knowledge and action

According to Zhu Xi's epistemology, knowledge and action were indivisible components of truly intelligent activity. Although he did distinguish between the priority of knowing, since intelligent action requires forethought, and the importance of action, as it produces a discernible effect, Zhu Xi said "Knowledge and action always require each other. It is like a person who cannot walk without legs although he has eyes, and who cannot see without eyes although he has legs. With respect to order, knowledge comes first, and with respect to importance, action is more important."


The investigation of things and the extension of knowledge

Zhu Xi advocated 格物致知 , the investigation of things. How to investigate and what these things are is the source of much debate. To Zhu Xi, the things are moral principles and the investigation involves paying attention to everything in both books and affairs because "moral principles are quite inexhaustible".


Religion

Zhu Xi did believe in the existence of spirits, ghosts, divination, and blessings.


Meditation

Zhu Xi practiced a form of daily
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally cal ...
called ''
jingzuo Jing zuo (pratisaṃlīna, ) refers to the Neo-Confucian meditation practice advocated by Zhu Xi and Wang Yang-ming. Jing zuo can also be described as a form of spiritual self-cultivation that helps a person achieve a more fulfilling life ("6-Great ...
'' similar to, but not the same as, Buddhist ''
dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013) * ''Dhyana'' ...
'' or ''chan ding'' (Wade-Giles: ''ch'an-ting''). His meditation did not require the cessation of all thinking as in some forms of Buddhism; rather, it was characterised by quiet introspection that helped to balance various aspects of one's personality and allowed for focused thought and concentration. His form of meditation was by nature Confucian in the sense that it was concerned with morality. His meditation attempted to reason and feel in harmony with the universe. He believed that this type of meditation brought humanity closer together and more into harmony.


On teaching, learning, and the creation of an academy

Zhu Xi heavily focused his energy on teaching, claiming that learning is the only way to sage-hood. He wished to make the pursuit of sage-hood attainable to all men. He lamented more modern printing techniques and the proliferation of books that ensued. This, he believed, made students less appreciative and focused on books, simply because there were more books to read than before. Therefore, he attempted to redefine how students should learn and read. In fact, disappointed by local schools in China, he established his own academy, White Deer Grotto Academy, to instruct students properly and in the proper fashion.


Taoist and Buddhist influence on Zhu Xi

Zhu Xi wrote what was to become the orthodox Confucian interpretation of a number of concepts in
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...
and
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
. While he appeared to have adopted some ideas from these competing systems of thought, unlike previous Neo-Confucians he strictly abided by the Confucian doctrine of active moral cultivation. He found Buddhist principles to be darkening and deluding the original mind as well as destroying human relations.''The Complete Works of Chu Hsi'', section 138 in Chan 1963: 647.


Legacy

From 1313 to 1905, Zhu Xi's commentaries on the Four Books formed the basis of civil service examinations in China. His teachings were to dominate Neo-Confucians such as
Wang Fuzhi Wang Fuzhi (; 1619–1692), courtesy name Ernong (), pseudonym Chuanshan (), was a Chinese essayist, historian, and philosopher of the late Ming, early Qing dynasties. Life Born to a scholarly family in Hengyang in Hunan province in 1619, Wang F ...
, though dissenters would later emerge such as
Wang Yangming Wang Shouren (, 26 October 1472 – 9 January 1529), courtesy name Bo'an (), art name Yangmingzi (), usually referred to as Wang Yangming (), was a Chinese calligrapher, general, philosopher, politician, and writer during the Ming dynasty ...
and the School of Mind two and a half centuries later. His philosophy survived the Intellectual Revolution of 1917, and later Feng Youlan would interpret his conception of ''li'', ''qi'', and ''taiji'' into a new metaphysical theory. He was also influential in
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
known as ''Shushigaku'' (朱子学, School of Master Zhu), and in Korea known as ''Jujahak'' (주자학), where it became an orthodoxy. ''
Life Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for growth, reaction to stimuli, metabolism, energ ...
'' magazine ranked Zhu Xi as the forty-fifth most important person in the last
millennium A millennium (plural millennia or millenniums) is a period of one thousand years, sometimes called a kiloannum (ka), or kiloyear (ky). Normally, the word is used specifically for periods of a thousand years that begin at the starting point (ini ...
. Zhu Xi's descendants, like those of Confucius and other notable Confucians, held the hereditary title of Wujing Boshi (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì), which translated means Erudite or
Doctor Doctor or The Doctor may refer to: Personal titles * Doctor (title), the holder of an accredited academic degree * A medical practitioner, including: ** Physician ** Surgeon ** Dentist ** Veterinary physician ** Optometrist *Other roles ** ...
( PhD) of the
Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism. Four Books The Four Books () are ...
and enjoyed the rank of 8a in the Mandarin (bureaucrat) system. One of his descendants married
Emperor Lizong Emperor Lizong of Song (26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264), personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264. His original name was ...
.


Calligraphy

Zhu Xi had, from an early age, followed his father and a number of great calligraphers at the time in practicing calligraphy. At first he learned the style of
Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...
, but later specialized in the regular script of Zhong Yao and the running cursive script of
Yan Zhenqing Yan Zhenqing (; 709–785) was a Chinese calligrapher, military general, and politician. He was a leading Chinese calligrapher and a loyal governor of the Tang dynasty. His artistic accomplishment in Chinese calligraphy is equal to that of the ...
. Though his manuscripts left to the world are piecemeal and incomplete, and most of his works are lost. Moreover, his fame in the realm of philosophy was so great that even his brilliance in calligraphy was overshadowed. He was skillful in both running and cursive scripts, especially in large characters, but extant artworks consist mainly of short written notes in running script and rarely of large characters. His authentic manuscripts are collected by Nanjing Museum, Beijing Palace Museum, Liaoning Province Museum, Taipei Palace Museum and the National Museum of Tokyo, Japan. Some pieces are in private collections in China and overseas. The ''Thatched Hut Hand Scroll'', one of Zhu Xi's masterpieces in running-cursive script, is in an overseas private collection. ''Thatched Hut Hand Scroll'' contains three separate parts: # Title # 102 characters by Zhu Xi in running cursive scripts # The postscripts by
Wen Tianxiang Wen Tianxiang (; June 6, 1236 – January 9, 1283), noble title Duke of Xin (), was a Chinese poet and politician in the last years of the Southern Song dynasty. For his resistance to Kublai Khan's invasion of the Southern Song dynasty, and for ...
(1236~1283) of
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
,
Fang Xiaoru Fang Xiaoru (; 1357–1402), courtesy name Xizhi (希直) or Xigu (希古), was a Chinese politician and Confucian scholar of the Ming dynasty. He was an orthodox Confucian scholar-bureaucrat, famous for his continuation of the Jinhua school of ...
(1375~1402),
Zhu Yunming Zhu Yunming (; 1461–1527) was a Chinese calligrapher, poet, writer, and scholar-official of the Ming dynasty, known as one of the "Four Talents of Wu" (Suzhou). Most admired for his accomplishment in calligraphy, he is also a popular cultural ...
(1460–1526),
Tang Yin Tang Yin (; 1470–1524), courtesy name Bohu (), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, and poet of the Ming dynasty period. Even though he was born during the Ming dynasty, many of his paintings, especially those of people, were illustrated with el ...
(1470~1523) and
Hai Rui Hai Rui (海瑞; ''Hǎi Ruì'' ; 23 January 1514 – 13 November 1587), courtesy name Ruxian (汝贤), art name Gangfeng (刚峰), was a Chinese scholar-official of the Ming dynasty, remembered as a model of honesty and integrity in office. A p ...
(1514~1587) of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
.


Calligraphy style

The calligraphy of Zhu Xi had been acclaimed as acquiring the style of the Han and Wei dynasties. He was skillful in the central tip, and his brush strokes are smooth and round, steady yet flowing in the movements without any trace of frivolity and abruptness. Indeed, his calligraphy possesses stability and elegance in construction with a continuous flow of energy. Without trying to be pretentious or intentional, his written characters are well-balanced, natural and unconventional. As he was a patriarch of Confucianism philosophy, it is understandable that his learning permeated in all his writings with due respect for traditional standards. He maintained that while rules had to be observed for each word, there should be room for tolerance, multiplicity and naturalness. In other words, calligraphy had to observe rules and at the same time not be bound by them so as to express the quality of naturalness. It is small wonder that his calligraphy had been highly esteemed throughout the centuries, by great personages as follows: Tao Chung Yi (around 1329~1412) of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
:
Whilst Master Zhu inherited the orthodox teaching and propagated it to the realm of sages and yet he was also proficient in running and cursive scripts, especially in large characters. His execution of brush was well-poised and elegant. However piecemeal or isolated his manuscripts, they were eagerly sought after and treasured.
Wang Sai Ching (1526–1590) of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
:
The brush strokes in his calligraphy were swift without attempting at formality, yet none of his strokes and dots were not in conformity with the rules of calligraphy.
Wen Tianxiang Wen Tianxiang (; June 6, 1236 – January 9, 1283), noble title Duke of Xin (), was a Chinese poet and politician in the last years of the Southern Song dynasty. For his resistance to Kublai Khan's invasion of the Southern Song dynasty, and for ...
of the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
in his postscript for the ''Thatched Hut Hand Scroll'' by Zhu Xi:
People in the olden days said that there was embedded the bones of loyal subject in the calligraphy of Yan Zhenqing. Observing the execution of brush strokes by Zhu Xi, I am indeed convinced of the truth of this opinion.
Zhu Yunming Zhu Yunming (; 1461–1527) was a Chinese calligrapher, poet, writer, and scholar-official of the Ming dynasty, known as one of the "Four Talents of Wu" (Suzhou). Most admired for his accomplishment in calligraphy, he is also a popular cultural ...
of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
in his postscript for the ''Thatched Hut Hand Scroll'' by Zhu Xi:
Master Zhu was loyal, learned and a great scholar throughout ages . He was superb in calligraphy although he did not write much in his lifetime and hence they were rarely seen in later ages. This roll had been collected by Wong Sze Ma for a long time and of late, it appeared in the world. I chanced to see it once and whilst I regretted that I did not try to study it extensively until now, in the study room of my friend, I was so lucky to see it again. This showed that I am destined to see the manuscripts of master Zhu. I therefore wrote this preface for my intention.
Hai Rui Hai Rui (海瑞; ''Hǎi Ruì'' ; 23 January 1514 – 13 November 1587), courtesy name Ruxian (汝贤), art name Gangfeng (刚峰), was a Chinese scholar-official of the Ming dynasty, remembered as a model of honesty and integrity in office. A p ...
of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
in his postscript for the ''Thatched Hut Hand Scroll'' by Zhu Xi:
The writings are enticing, delicate, elegant and outstanding. Truly such calligraphy piece is the wonder of nature.


See also


Footnotes and references


Further reading

*J. Percy Bruce. ''Chu Hsi and His Masters'', Probsthain & Co., London, 1922. *Daniel K. Gardner. ''Learning To Be a Sage'', University of California Press, Berkeley, 1990. . *Bruce E. Carpenter. 'Chu Hsi and the Art of Reading' in ''Tezukayama University Review'' (Tezukayama daigaku ronshū), Nara, Japan, no. 15, 1977, pp. 13–18. *Wing-tsit Chan, ''Chu Hsi: Life and Thought'' (1987). . *Wing-tsit Chan, ''Chu Hsi: New Studies''. University of Hawaii Press: 1989. *Gedalecia, D (1974). "Excursion Into Substance and Function." ''Philosophy East and West''. vol. 4, 443–451. *Hoyt Cleveland Tillman, ''Utilitarian Confucianism: Ch‘en Liang's Challenge to Chu Hsi'' (1982) *Wm. Theodore de Bary, ''Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the Mind-and-Heart'' (1981), on the development of Zhu Xi's thought after his death *Wing-tsit Chan (ed.), ''Chu Hsi and Neo-Confucianism'' (1986), a set of conference papers *Donald J. Munro, ''Images of Human Nature: A Sung Portrait'' (1988), an analysis of the concept of human nature in Zhu Xi's thought *Joseph A. Adler, ''Reconstructing the Confucian Dao: Zhu Xi's Appropriation of Zhou Dunyi'' (2014), a study of how and why Zhu Xi chose Zhou Dunyi to be the first true Confucian Sage since Mencius * Lianbin Dai, “From Philology to Philosophy: Zhu Xi (1130–1200) as a Reader-Annotator” (2016). In ''Canonical Texts and Scholarly Practices: A Global Comparative Approach'', edited by Anthony Grafton and Glenn W. Most, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016, 136–163, on Zhu Xi within the context and development of neo-Confucianism


Translations

All translations are of excerpts except where otherwise noted. * * *Wing-tsit Chan (1963), ''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Gardner, Daniel (1986). ''Chu Hsi and Ta-hsueh: Neo-Confucian Reflection on the Confucian Canon''. Cambridge: Harvard UP. * ** A full translation of 近思錄. * * ** A full translation of 續近思錄. * ** A full translation of 家禮. * ** A full translation of 易學啟蒙. * ** Full translation of Zhu Xi's commentaries on Zhou Dunyi's Taijitu shuo 太極圖說 and Tongshu 通書. * ** Full translation of Zhu Xi's Zhouyi benyi 周易本義, with Introduction and annotations.


External links

* *
Zhu Xi and his Calligraphy Gallery
at China Online Museum

- Joseph A. Adler *

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zhu, Xi 1130 births 1200 deaths 12th-century Chinese calligraphers 12th-century Chinese historians 12th-century Chinese philosophers 12th-century Chinese poets Chinese Confucianists Critics of Buddhism Historians from Fujian Neo-Confucian scholars Philosophers from Fujian Poets from Fujian Politicians from Sanming Song dynasty calligraphers Song dynasty essayists Song dynasty historians Song dynasty philosophers Song dynasty poets Song dynasty politicians from Fujian Song dynasty classicists