The ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' is a collection of Sanskrit

sutra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...

s (

aphorism An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tra ...

s) on the theory and practice of

yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

– 195 sutras (according to

Vyāsa Krishna Dvaipayana ( sa, कृष्णद्वैपायन, Kṛṣṇadvaipāyana), better known as Vyasa (; sa, व्यासः, Vyāsaḥ, compiler) or Vedavyasa (वेदव्यासः, ''Veda-vyāsaḥ'', "the one who cl ...

and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including

BKS Iyengar Bellur Krishnamachar Sundararaja Iyengar (14 December 1918 – 20 August 2014) was an Indian teacher of yoga and author. He is founder of the style of yoga as exercise, known as " Iyengar Yoga", and was considered one of the foremost yoga gur ...

). The ''Yoga Sutras'' was compiled in the early centuries CE, by the sage

Patanjali Patanjali ( sa, पतञ्जलि, Patañjali), also called Gonardiya or Gonikaputra, was a Hindu author, mystic and philosopher. Very little is known about him, and while no one knows exactly when he lived; from analysis of his works it i ...

in India who synthesized and organized knowledge about yoga from much older traditions. The ''Yoga Sutras'' is best known for its reference to '' ashtanga'', eight elements of practice culminating in ''

samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...

''. The eight elements are ''

yama Yama (Devanagari: यम) or Yamarāja (यमराज), is a deity of death, dharma, the south direction, and the underworld who predominantly features in Hindu and Buddhist religion, belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities ...

'' (abstinences), ''

niyama The Niyamas ( sa, नियम, translit=Niyama) are positive duties or observances. In Indian traditions, particularly Yoga, niyamas and their complement, Yamas, are recommended activities and habits for healthy living, spiritual enlightenment ...

'' (observances), ''

asana An asana is a body posture, originally and still a general term for a sitting meditation pose,Verse 46, chapter II, "Patanjali Yoga sutras" by Swami Prabhavananda, published by the Sri Ramakrishna Math p. 111 and later extended in hatha yoga ...

'' (yoga postures), ''

pranayama Pranayama is the yogic practice of focusing on breath. In Sanskrit, '' prana'' means "vital life force", and ''yama'' means to gain control. In yoga, breath is associated with ''prana'', thus, pranayama is a means to elevate the '' prana'' ''sha ...

'' (breath control), ''

pratyahara Pratyahara () or the 'gathering towards' is the fifth element among the Eight stages of Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga, as mentioned in his classical work, ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' composed in the 2nd century BCE. It is also the first stage of the ...

'' (withdrawal of the senses), '' dharana'' (concentration of the

mind The mind is the set of faculties responsible for all mental phenomena. Often the term is also identified with the phenomena themselves. These faculties include thought, imagination, memory, will, and sensation. They are responsible for various m ...

), ''

dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013) * ''Dhyana'' ...

'' (meditation) and ''

'' (absorption). The main aim of practice is ''

kaivalya Kaivalya ( sa, कैवल्य), is the ultimate goal of aṣṭāṅga yoga and means "solitude", "detachment" or "isolation", a '' vrddhi''-derivation from ''kevala'' "alone, isolated". It is the isolation of purusha from prakṛti, and libe ...

'', discernment of ''

purusha ''Purusha'' (' or ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.Karl Potter, Presuppositions of Indi ...

'', the witness-consciousness, as distinct from '' prakriti'', the cognitive apparatus, and disentanglement of ''purusha'' from ''prakriti's'' muddled defilements. The ''Yoga Sutras'' built on

Samkhya ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic Āstika and nāstika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puruṣa' ...

notions of ''purusha'' and ''prakriti'', and is often seen as complementary to it. It is closely related to

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

, incorporating some of its terminology.

Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

and

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...

, as well as

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...

and Buddhism, can be seen as representing different manifestations of a broad stream of

ascetic Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...

traditions in ancient India, in contrast to the

Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

traditions and

Vedic ritualism The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...

which were prevalent at the time. The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' to be one of the foundational texts of classical

Yoga philosophy Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism,Maurice Phillips (Published as Max Muller collection), The Evolution of Hinduism, , PhD. Thesis awarded by University of Berne, Switzerland, page 8 though it is only at the end ...

.Stuart Sarbacker (2011), Yoga Powers (Editor: Knut A. Jacobsen), Brill, , p. 195. However, the appropriation - and misappropriation - of the ''Yoga Sutras'' and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by

David Gordon White David Gordon White (born September 3, 1953) is an American Indologist. Academic career David Gordon White took his B.A. in South Asian Studies at the University of Wisconsin in 1975. He obtained an M.A. in Religion at the University of Chicago ...

, who argues that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in the late 19th century due to the efforts of

Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the intro ...

, the

Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...

and others. It gained prominence as a classic in the 20th century.

Author and dating

Author

The colophons of manuscripts of the ''Yoga Sutras'' attribute the work to

. The identity of Patañjali has been the subject of academic debate because an author of the same name is credited with the authorship of the classic text on Sanskrit grammar named ''

Mahābhāṣya ''Mahabhashya'' ( sa, महाभाष्य, IAST: '','' , "great commentary"), attributed to Patañjali, is a commentary on selected rules of Sanskrit grammar from Pāṇini's treatise, the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'', as well as Kātyāyana's ''V� ...

'' that is firmly datable to the second century BC. Although some scholars argue that this is the same Patanjali who authored the ''Yoga Sutras'', the two works are completely different in subject matter, and

Indologist Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies. The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') is o ...

Louis Renou Louis Renou (; 26 October 1896 – 18 August 1966) was the pre-eminent French Indologist of the twentieth century. Education and Career After passing the ''agrégation'' examination in 1920, Louis Renou taught for a year at the ''lycée'' in Rouen ...

has shown that there are significant differences in language, grammar and vocabulary. Before the time of

Bhoja Bhoja (reigned c. 1010–1055 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty. His kingdom was centered around the Malwa region in central India, where his capital Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar) was located. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all h ...

(11th century), no known text conflates the identity of the two authors.

Dating

Philipp A. Maas assessed Patañjali's ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'''s date to be about 400 CE, based on synchronisms between its arguments and those of

Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary ...

, on tracing the history of the commentaries on it published in the first millennium CE, on the opinions of earlier Sanskrit commentators, on the testimony of manuscript colophons and on a review of extant literature. This dating for the ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'' was proposed as early as 1914 by Woods and has been accepted widely by academic scholars of the history of Indian philosophical thought. Edwin Bryant, on the other hand, surveyed the major commentators in his translation of the ''Yoga Sūtras''. He observed that "Most scholars date the text shortly after the turn of the Common Era (circa first to second century), but that it has been placed as early as several centuries before that." Bryant concluded that "A number of scholars have dated the ''Yoga Sūtras'' as late as the fourth or fifth century CE, but these arguments have all been challenged. ... All such arguments or a late dateare problematic." Michele Desmarais summarized a wide variety of dates assigned to Yogasutra, ranging from 500 BCE to 3rd century CE, noting that there is a paucity of evidence for any certainty. She stated the text may have been composed at an earlier date given conflicting theories on how to date it, but latter dates are more commonly accepted by scholars.

Compilation

The ''Yoga Sutras'' are a composite of various traditions. The levels of samādhi taught in the text resemble the Buddhist ''

jhana In the oldest texts of Buddhism, ''dhyāna'' () or ''jhāna'' () is a component of the training of the mind (''bhavana''), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, "burn up" the ...

s''. According to Feuerstein, the ''Yoga Sutras'' are a condensation of two different traditions, namely "eight limb yoga" (aṣṭāṅga yoga) and action yoga ('' Kriya yoga''). The ''kriya yoga'' part is contained in chapter 1, chapter 2

s 1-27, chapter 3 except

54, and chapter 4. The "eight limb yoga" is described in chapter 2 sutras 28–55, and chapter 3 sutras 3 and 54. There are numerous parallels in the ancient

, Yoga and

Abhidharma The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...

schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.Larson, pp. 43-45 Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (''adhyavasaya'') of ''prakrti'' and ''purusa'' (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, and its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge. From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of ''nirodhasamadhi'', suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is neither self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, in believing that each individual has a self and soul. The third concept that Yoga Sutras synthesizes into its philosophy is the ancient

traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from the 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as

Katha Upanishad The ''Katha Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: कठोपनिषद् or कठ उपनिषद्) (') is one of the ''mukhya'' (primary) Upanishads, embedded in the last eight short sections of the ' school of the Krishna Yajurveda.Paul Deussen. ...

, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and

Maitri Upanishad The ''Maitrayaniya Upanishad'' ( sa, मैत्रायणीय उपनिषद्, ) is an ancient Sanskrit text that is embedded inside the Yajurveda.Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 3 ...

.Larson, pp. 43-45 According to Wujastyk, referencing Maas, Patanjali integrated yoga from older traditions in ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'', and added his own explanatory passages to create the unified work that, since 1100 CE, has been considered the work of two people. Together the compilation of Patanjali's sutras and the Vyasabhasya, is called Pātañjalayogaśāstra.

''Yogabhashya''

The ''Yogabhashya'' is a commentary on the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'', traditionally attributed to the legendary Vedic sage

Vyasa Krishna Dvaipayana ( sa, कृष्णद्वैपायन, Kṛṣṇadvaipāyana), better known as Vyasa (; sa, व्यासः, Vyāsaḥ, compiler) or Vedavyasa (वेदव्यासः, ''Veda-vyāsaḥ'', "the one who cl ...

who is said to have composed the

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

. This commentary is indispensable for the understanding of the aphoristic and terse Yoga sutras, and the study of the sutras has always referred to the ''Yogabhashya''.Bryant, Edwin F. The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary; Introduction Some scholars see Vyasa as a later 4th or 5th century AD commentator (as opposed to the ancient mythic figure). Vyasa is, however, not the only commentator on the text. Another well-known commentator on the''Yoga Sutras'' is Vachaspati Mishra, who had also written commentaries on other schools of Indian philosophy such as Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, and Mimamsa. After Vyasa, it is believed that Vachaspati Mishra’s commentary is the "next most authoritative." Other commentators include Bhoja Rāja,

Vijñānabhikṣu Vijñānabhikṣu (also spelled ''Vijnanabhikshu'') was a Hindu philosopher from Bihar, variously dated to the 15th or 16th century, known for his commentary on various schools of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Yoga text of Patanjali. His scho ...

, and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī. Vijñānabhikṣu, according to Bryant, wrote the "most insightful and useful commentary after that of Vyasa's." Bhoja Rāja and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī's commentaries follow the previous commentaries, without expanding much on what their predecessors have said. Hariharānanda Āraṇya, in contrast to the above figures, is a modern commentator on the text. Bryant explains that, even though "his is a standpoint exposed to Western thought", it is still "thoroughly grounded in tradition". Scholars hold that both texts, the sutras and the commentary were written by one person. According to Philipp A. Maas, based on a study of the original manuscripts, Patañjali's composition was entitled ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'' ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali") and consisted of both ''Sūtras'' ''and'' ''Bhāṣya''. This means that the ''Bhāṣya'' was in fact Patañjali's own work. The practice of writing a set of aphorisms with the author's own explanation was well known at the time of Patañjali, as for example in Vasubandhu's ''Abhidharmakośabhāṣya'' (that, incidentally, Patañjali quotes). These research findings change the historical understanding of the yoga tradition, since they allow us to take the Bhāṣya as Patañjali's very own explanation of the meaning of his somewhat cryptic sūtras. The ''Yogabhashya'' states that 'yoga' in the ''Yoga Sutras'' has the meaning of 'samadhi'. Another commentary (the ''Vivarana'') by a certain Shankara, confirms the interpretation of ''yogah samadhih'' (YBh. I.1): 'yoga' in Patañjali's sutra has the meaning of 'integration'. This Shankara may or may not have been the famed Vedantic scholar

Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...

(8th or 9th century). Scholarly opinion is still open on this issue.

Patañjali divided his ''Yoga Sutras'' into four chapters or books (Sanskrit ''Pada''), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:

Samadhi Pada

* Samadhi Pada (51 sutras).

Samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...

is a state of direct and reliable perception ('' pramāṇa'') where "the seer" (''

Purusha ''Purusha'' (' or ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.Karl Potter, Presuppositions of Indi ...

'', pure consciousness, the Self) abides in itself. Samadhi is the main technique the yogi learns by which to calm the workings of the mind, whereafter Kaivalya, the isolation of 'the seer' from the impurities of the mind, is attained. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means of attaining

samādhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditation, meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ash ...

. :* This chapter contains the famous definitional verse (YS 1.2): ''"Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ"'' ("Yoga is the restriction of the fluctuations of mindstuff"). When the mind is stilled, the seer or real Self is revealed: :::1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature. :::1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind). :* YS 1.33-39 mentions seven practices to still the mind, the seventh being meditative absorption (YS 1.39), which is further explained in YS 1.40-51 and YS 3.1-12.

Sadhana Pada

* Sadhana Pada (55 sutras). Sadhana is the Sanskrit for "practice" or "discipline," aiming at discriminative discernment, to discern the Seer (consciousness) from its objects and the hindrances. Here the author outlines two systems of Yoga: '' Kriyā Yoga'' and ''Aṣṭāṅga Yoga'' ('Eightlimbed Yoga').

Kriya Yoga

:* '' Kriyā Yoga'' in the Yoga Sūtras is a preparation for ''Aṣṭāṅga Yoga'' (with three special elements of the Niyamas (2nd limb)): :::2.3 ''tapas'' - austerity :::2.4 ''svādhyaya'' - self-study of the scriptures :::2.5 ''iśvara praṇidhana'' – devotion to god or pure consciousness

Ashtanga Yoga

:* '' Aṣṭānga Yoga'' is the yoga of eight limbs. In chapter 2, five "indirect aids" for purification and aiding insight are outlined: ::1. ''Yama'' - restraints or ethics of behaviour; Yama consists of: :::1.1 ''Ahimsa'' (Non violence) :::1.2 ''Satya'' (Truthfulness) :::1.3 ''Asteya'' (Non stealing) :::1.4 ''Brahmacharya'' (Chastity) :::1.5 ''Aparigraha'' (Non possession) ::2. ''Niyama'' - observances; Niyama consists of: :::2.1 ''Saucha'' (Cleanliness) :::2.2 ''Santosha'' (Contentment) :::2.3 ''Tapas'' (Austerity) :::2.4 ''Svadhyaya'' (Selfstudy) :::2.5 ''Isvara Pranidhana'' (Devotion to the lord) ::3. ''Āsana'' - A physical posture in which one can be steady and comfortable. ::4. ''Prāṇāyāma'' - control of the

prana In yoga, Indian medicine and Indian martial arts, prana ( sa2, प्राण, ; the Sanskrit word for breath, " life force", or "vital principle") permeates reality on all levels including inanimate objects. In Hindu literature, prāṇa is ...

(breath) ::5. ''Pratyahara'' - withdrawal of the senses ::6. ''

Dhāraṇā ''Dhāraṇā'' () is translated as "collection or concentration of the mind (joined with the retention of breath)", or "the act of holding, bearing, wearing, supporting, maintaining, retaining, keeping back (in remembrance), a good memory", or "f ...

'' - concentration ::7. '' Dhyāna'' - meditation ::8. ''

Samādhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditation, meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ash ...

'' - absorption

Vibhuti Pada

* Vibhuti Pada (56 sutras). Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or "manifestation". In chapter 3, the last three limbs of ''Aṣṭānga Yoga'', known as

samyama ''Samyama'' (from Sanskrit संयम saṃ-yama—holding together, tying up, binding, integration) is the combined simultaneous practice of Dhāraṇā (concentration), Dhyāna (meditation) and Samādhi (union). Description Samyama is a to ...

, are outlined: ::6. ''

'' - concentration ::7. '' Dhyāna'' - meditation ::8. ''

'' - absorption : Besides insight into pure awareness (purusha),

gives 'supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: ''

siddhi In Indian religions, (Sanskrit: '; fulfillment, accomplishment) are material, paranormal, supernatural, or otherwise magical powers, abilities, and attainments that are the products of yogic advancement through sādhanās such as meditation ...

''), as the yogi gains access to and unites with the tattvas, the constituents of ''prakriti''. The text warns (III.38) that these powers can become an obstacle to the yogi who seeks liberation.

Kaivalya Pada

* Kaivalya Pada (34 sutras).

Kaivalya Kaivalya ( sa, कैवल्य), is the ultimate goal of aṣṭāṅga yoga and means "solitude", "detachment" or "isolation", a '' vrddhi''-derivation from ''kevala'' "alone, isolated". It is the isolation of purusha from prakṛti, and libe ...

, "isolation", of the Seer from the contents of the mind so it is no longer disturbed by the movements of the mind. It stands for emancipation or liberation, and is used where other texts often employ the term

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...

(liberation). The Kaivalya Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the Seer.

Philosophy

Metaphysics

The metaphysics of Patanjali is built on the same

dualist Dualism most commonly refers to: * Mind–body dualism, a philosophical view which holds that mental phenomena are, at least in certain respects, not physical phenomena, or that the mind and the body are distinct and separable from one another ** ...

foundation as the Samkhya school.Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University)
''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''
IEP The universe is conceptualized as of two realities in Samkhya-Yoga schools: ''

Puruṣa ''Purusha'' (' or ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedas, Vedic and Upanishads, Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the Macranthropy, cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.Karl ...

'' (consciousness) and '' prakriti'' (mind, cognition, emotions, and matter). It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities. ''

Jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jīva (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. ...

'' (a living being) is considered as a state in which ''puruṣa'' is bonded to ''prakriti'' in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.Samkhya - Hinduism
''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2014) During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called Kaivalya, liberation, or ''

'' by both Yoga and Samkhya school. The ethical theory of Yoga school is based on

Yamas The Yamas ( sa, यम, translit=Yama), and their complement, the Niyamas, represent a series of "right living" or ethical rules within Yoga philosophy. It means "reining in" or "control". These are restraints for proper conduct as given in the ...

and

Niyama The Niyamas ( sa, नियम, translit=Niyama) are positive duties or observances. In Indian traditions, particularly Yoga, niyamas and their complement, Yamas, are recommended activities and habits for healthy living, spiritual enlightenment ...

, as well as elements of the

Guṇa ( sa, गुण) is a concept in Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".Guṇa ( sa, गुण) is a concept in Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".sattva Sattva ( Sanskrit: सत्त्व, meaning ''honesty'') is one of the three guṇas or "modes of existence" (tendencies, qualities, attributes), a philosophical and psychological concept understood by the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.Jame ...

'' guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), ''

rajas Rajas (Sanskrit: रजस्) is one of the three Guṇas (tendencies, qualities, attributes), a philosophical and psychological concept developed by the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.James G. Lochtefeld, Rajas, in The Illustrated Encycloped ...

'' guna (passion, active, confused), and '' tamas'' guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, ''International Journal of Ethics'', Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M'', Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, , page 265 These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three ''gunas''. When ''sattva'' guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmony, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism.

Soteriology

According to Bryant, the purpose of yoga is liberation from suffering, by means of discriminative discernment. The eight limbs are "the means of achieving discriminative discernment," the "uncoupling of puruṣa from all connection with prakṛti and all involvement with the citta." Bryant states that, to Patanjali, Yoga-practice "essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University)
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
IEP While the Samkhya school suggests that ''jnana'' (knowledge) is a sufficient means to ''moksha'', Patanjali suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Patanjali holds that ''avidya'', ignorance is the cause of all five kleshas, which are the cause of suffering and saṁsāra. Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminating discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. The ''Yoga Sūtras'' is the Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this. ''Samādhi'' is the state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of ''Purusa'' and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is

, the

soteriological Soteriology (; el, wikt:σωτηρία, σωτηρία ' "salvation" from wikt:σωτήρ, σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and wikt:λόγος, λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of Doctrine, religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation ...

goal in Hinduism. Book 3 of Patanjali's ''Yogasutra'' is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are a necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as ''samyama'', in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of ''citta'' and self-knowledge.''The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa - Book 3''
GN Jha (Translator);

Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...

Archives, pages 94-95 In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect ''sant'' (tranquility) and ''udita'' (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between ''sabda'' (word), ''artha'' (meaning) and ''pratyaya'' (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.''The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa - Book 3''
GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 108-126 Once a yogi reaches this state of ''

'', it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and

, the redemptive goal of the yogi.

Epistemology

The

epistemology Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

in Patanjali's system of Yoga, like the Sāmkhya school of Indian philosophy, relies on three of six ''

Pramanas ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Advaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hinduism, Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the Āstika and nāstika, orthodox Hindu school Ved ...

, Yoga did not adopt the following three ''

Pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".

God

Patanjali differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating what some scholars have called a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 38-39 Hindu scholars such as the 8th century

Adi Sankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shank ...

, as well as many modern academic scholars describe Yoga school as "Samkhya school with God."Maurice Phillips (Published as Max Muller collection), The Evolution of Hinduism, , PhD. Thesis awarded by University of Berne, Switzerland, page 8 The ''Yogasutras of Patanjali'' use the term ''Isvara'' in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is ''Isvara''? These commentaries range from defining ''Isvara'' from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual". Whicher states that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of ''Isvara'' in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation". Whereas the purusa (spirit, or true self) of the yogin is bound to the prakriti - the material body subject to karmas and kleshas, the special ''purusa'' called ''Isvara'' is immaterial and ultimately free. Patanjali defines ''Isvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self/Spirit (पुरुषविशेष, ''puruṣa-viśeṣa'')." * Sanskrit Original with Translation 1
The Yoga Philosophy
TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives; * Translation 2
The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa
GN Jha (Translator), with notes; Harvard University Archives; * Translation 3
''The Yogasutras of Patanjali''
Charles Johnston (Translator)} This sutra adds the characteristics of ''Isvara'' as that special Self/Spirit which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, ''aparamrsta'') by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, ''klesha''), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, ''karma''), one's life fruits (विपाक, ''vipâka''), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).aparAmRSTakleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya
''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Koeln University, Germany

Philosophical roots and influences

The ''Yoga Sutras'' incorporated the teachings of many other Indian philosophical systems prevalent at the time. According to Zimmer, Samkhya and Yoga are two of several schools of philosophy that originated over the centuries that had common roots in the pre-Aryan cultures and traditions of India. Yet, the orthodox Hindu philosophies of

Vedānta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...

, as well as the non-orthodox Nastika systems of Jainism and Buddhism can all be seen as representing one stream of spiritual activity in ancient India, in contrast to the

traditions and

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

ritualism which were also prevalent at the same time. The

- Sramana traditions, iconolatry and Vedic rituals can be identified with the Jnana marga,

marga and the

Karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...

marga respectively that are outlined in the

Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...

Samkhya

The ''Yoga Sutras'' are built on a foundation of

philosophy, and are generally seen as the practice while Samkhya is the theory. The influence of Samkhya is so pervasive in the Sutras that the historian Surendranath Dasgupta went so far as to deny independent categorization to Patañjali's system, preferring to refer to it as ''Patanjala Samkhya'', similar to the position taken by the Jain writer

Haribhadra Aacharya Haribhadra Suri was a Svetambara mendicant Jain leader, philosopher , doxographer, and author. There are multiple contradictory dates assigned to his birth. According to tradition, he lived c. 459–529 CE. However, in 1919, a Jain m ...

in his commentary on Yoga. Patañjali's ''Yoga Sutras'' accept the Samkhya's division of the world and phenomena into twenty-five tattvas or principles, of which one is ''Purusha'' meaning Self or consciousness, the others being ''Prakriti'' (primal nature), ''Buddhi'' (intellect or will), ''Ahamkara'' (ego), ''Manas'' (mind), five ''buddhindriyas'' (sensory capabilities), five ''karmendriyas'' (action-capabilities) and ten elements.Indian Philosophy Vol 2, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. p.314 The second part of the Sutras, the Sadhana, also summarizes the Samkhya perspectives about all seen activity lying within the realm of the three ''Gunas'' of ''Sattva'' (illumination), ''Rajas'' (passion) and ''Tamas'' (lethargy). The ''Yoga Sutras'' diverge from early Samkhya by the addition of the principle of

Isvara ''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of H ...

or God, as exemplified by Sutra 1.23 - "Iśvara pranidhãnãt vã", which is interpreted to mean that surrender to God is one way to liberation. ''Isvara'' is defined here as "a distinct Consciousness, untouched by afflictions, actions, fruitions or their residue". In the sutras, it is suggested that devotion to ''Isvara'', represented by the mystical syllable Om may be the most efficient method of achieving the goal of Yoga. This syllable Om is a central element of Hinduism, appearing in all the

Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

, including the earliest Chandogya and

Brihadaranyaka The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' ( sa, बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्, ) is one of the Principal Upanishads and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism. A key scripture to various schools of Hinduism, the ''Bri ...

Upanishads, and expounded upon in the Mandukya Upanishad. Another divergence from Samkhya is that while the Samkhya holds that knowledge is the means to liberation, Patañjali's Yoga insists on the methods of concentration and active striving. The aim of Yoga is to free the individual from the clutches of the matter, and considers intellectual knowledge alone to be inadequate for the purpose – which is different from the position taken by Samkhya. However, the essential similarities between the Samkhya and Patañjali's system remained even after the addition of the ''Isvara'' principle, with

Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian ...

noting that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...." The

, one of the chief scriptures of Hinduism, is considered to be based on this synthetic Samkhya-Yoga system. The ''Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali'' is a foundational text of the

school of Hinduism.

Buddhism

Scholars have presented different viewpoints on the relationship between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and the teachings in Buddhist texts.Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, New York University Press, , pages 136-142Michele Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness And Identity In Patanjali'S Yoga-Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 72-81 with footnotes

Karel Werner Karel Werner (12 January 1925 – 26 November 2019) was an indologist, orientalist, religious studies scholar, and philosopher of religion born in Jemnice in what is now the Czech Republic. Life Werner has described his childhood in the small ...

writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the ''Yoga Sutras'' that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the

Pāli Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During th ...

and even more so from the

Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...

and from

Sautrāntika The Sautrāntika or Sutravadin ( sa, सौत्रान्तिक, Suttavāda in Pali; ; ja, 経量部, Kyou Ryou Bu) were an early Buddhist school generally believed to be descended from the Sthavira nikāya by way of their immediate par ...

." He adds, "upon the whole it atanjali's Yoga sutrasis more elaborate and summarizes the actual technique of Yoga procedures more exactly than the Buddhist exposition".

(1998), ''Yoga and the Indian Philosophy'', Motilal Banarsidass, , page 131 However, states Werner, "The Buddha was the founder of his system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time. Patanjali is neither a founder nor a leader of a new movement. (...) The ingenuity of his atanjali'sachievement lies in the thoroughness and completeness with which all the important stages of Yoga practice and mental experiences are included in his scheme, and in their systematic presentation in a succinct treatise." Werner adds that the ideas of existence and the focus on "Self, Soul" in Patajali's Yogasutra are different from the "no Self" precepts of Buddhism. According to

, the language of the ''Yoga Sutras'' is often closer to "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, the Sanskrit of the early Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, than to the classical Sanskrit of other Hindu scriptures". He adds, historical evidence suggests that yoga philosophical systems influenced, and were influenced by, other philosophical systems in India such as early Buddhism and Jainism. White mentions controversies about the Yoga Sutras. A significant minority of scholars, notes White for example, believes that Vyasa lived a few centuries after Patanjali and his "Hindu-izing" commentary subverted Yoga Sutras' original "Buddhist" teachings; while the majority scholarly view disagrees with this view. Other scholars state there are differences between the teachings in the Yoga Sutras and those in Buddhist texts. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras for example, states Michele Desmarias, accept the concept of a Self or soul behind the operational mind, while Buddhists do not accept such a Self exists. The role of Self is central to the idea of ''Saṃyoga'', ''Citta'', Self-awareness and other concepts in Chapters 2 through 4 of the Yoga sutras, according to Desmarias. According to Barbara Miller, the difference between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and teachings in Buddhist texts is, "In Samkhya and Yoga, as in Buddhism and Jainism, the most salient characteristic of existence is ''duhkha'' or suffering. According to Buddhism, the origin of suffering is desire; according to Yoga, it is the connection between the observer (Purusha) with the observed (Prakrti). In both systems, the origin of ''duhkha'' is ignorance. There are also similarities in the means of deliverance recommended by the two systems. In Buddhism, the aspirant is asked to follow the eightfold path, which culminates in right meditation or ''samadhi''. In Yoga, the aspirant is asked to follow a somewhat different eight fold path, which also culminates in ''samadhi''. But the aim of yoga meditation is conceived in terms that a Buddhist would not accept: as the separation of an eternal conscious self from unconscious matter. The purpose of Patanjali's Yoga is to bring about this separation by means of understanding, devotion and practice."

Robert Thurman Robert Alexander Farrar Thurman (born August 3, 1941) is an American Buddhist author and academic who has written, edited, and translated several books on Tibetan Buddhism. He was the Je Tsongkhapa Professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies at ...

writes that Patañjali was influenced by the success of the

Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox. The Yoga Sutra, especially the fourth segment of Kaivalya Pada, contains several polemical verses critical of Buddhism, particularly the Vijñānavāda school of Vasubandhu.

Jainism

The five yamas or the constraints of the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating influence of

. Three other teachings closely associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine of "colours" in karma (

lesya ''Lesya'', according to the Jain theory of karma, is the coloring of the soul on account of its association with the karmic matter. The colour of ''leśyā'' varies from person to person depending on the psychic states and mental activities beh ...

); the ''

Telos Telos (; ) is a term used by philosopher Aristotle to refer to the final cause of a natural organ or entity, or of a work of human art. Intentional actualization of potential or inherent purpose,"Telos.''Philosophy Terms'' Retrieved 3 May 2020. ...

'' of isolation ( kevala in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of nonviolence (ahimsa), though nonviolence (ahimsa) made its first appearance in Indian philosophy-cum-religion in the

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

texts known as the

he Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest

, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word ''Ahimsa'' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (''sarvabhuta'') and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis/reincarnation (CU 8.15.1). It also names Ahimsa as one of five essential virtues].

Influence

The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' to be one of the foundational texts of classical

. However, the appropriation - and misappropriation - of the ''Yoga Sutras'' and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by

, who has argued that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in late 19th century due to the efforts of

, the

and others. It gained prominence as a classic in the 20th century. Its influence was reaffirmed by

James Mallinson James Mallinson (1943 – 24 August 2018) was a British record producer. He was the first winner of the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Classical category, and won a total of 16 Grammy Awards in his career. He won his first three Grammy a ...

. Before the 20th century, history indicates that the medieval Indian yoga scene was dominated by the various other texts such as the

and the Yoga Vasistha, texts attributed to

Yajnavalkya Yajnavalkya or Yagyavalkya ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य, ) is a Hindu Vedic sage figuring in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 700 BCE)., Quote: "Yajnavalkya, a Vedic sage, taught..."Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), ''A comparative histor ...

and

Hiranyagarbha Hiraṇyagarbha (Sanskrit: हिरण्यगर्भः ; literally the 'golden womb', poetically translated as 'universal womb') is the source of the creation of universe or the manifested cosmos in Vedic philosophy. It finds mention in on ...

, as well as literature on hatha yoga, tantric yoga and

Pashupata Shaivism Pashupata Shaivism (, sa, पाशुपत) is the oldest of the major Shaivite Hindu schools. The mainstream which follows Vedic Pasupata penance are 'Maha Pasupatas' and the schism of 'Lakula Pasupata' of Lakulisa. There is a debate about ...

yoga rather than the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali''. Much about yoga is written in the Mokṣadharma section of the epic ''

Mahābhārata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

''. The members of the Jaina faith had their own, different literature on yoga, and Buddhist yoga stems from pre-Patanjali sources. Some of the major commentaries on the ''Yoga Sutras'' were written between the ninth and sixteenth century. After the twelfth century, the school started to decline, and commentaries on Patanjali's Yoga philosophy were few. By the sixteenth century Patanjali's Yoga philosophy had virtually become extinct. The manuscript of the ''Yoga Sutras'' was no longer copied, since few read the text, and it was seldom taught. According to

, the popularity of the ''Yoga Sutras'' is recent, "miraculously rehabilitated" by

after having been ignored for seven centuries. It was with the rediscovery by a British Orientalist in the early 1800s that wider interest in the ''Yoga Sutras'' arose in the West. Popular interest arose in the 19th century, when the practice of yoga according to the ''Yoga Sutras'' became regarded as the science of yoga and the "supreme contemplative path to self-realization" by

, following

Helena Blavatsky Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, uk, Олена Петрівна Блаватська, Olena Petrivna Blavatska (; – 8 May 1891), often known as Madame Blavatsky, was a Russian mystic and author who co-founded the Theosophical Society in 187 ...

, president of the

. It has become a celebrated text in the West, states White, because of "Big Yoga – the corporate yoga subculture".

Translations and commentaries

The ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' was the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages and two non-Indian languages: Old Javanese and Arabic. * In early 11th century, the Persian scholar

Al Biruni Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973 – after 1050) commonly known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian in scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously the "founder of Indology", "Father of Co ...

(973-1050 CE) visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali's ''Yogasutras''. His translation included the text and a hitherto unknown Sanskrit commentary.S Pines and T Gelblum (Translators from Arabic to English, 1966), Al-Bīrūni (Translator from Sanskrit to Arabic, ~ 1035 AD), and Patañjali
Al-Bīrūnī's Arabic Version of Patañjali's ''Yogasūtra''
''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', Vol. 29, No. 2 (1966), pages 302-325 Al Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology. Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD. * The ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' was translated into Old Javanese by Indonesian Hindus, and the text was called ''Dharma Patanjala''. The surviving text has been dated to about 1450 CE, however it is unclear if this text is a copy of an earlier translation and whether other translations existed in Indonesia. This translation shares ideas found in other Indian translations particularly those in the

Śaiva Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...

traditions, and some in Al Biruni translation, but it is also significantly different in parts from the 11th century Arabic translation.Andrea Acri (2012), Yogasūtra 1.10, 1.21–23, and 2.9 in the Light of the Indo-Javanese Dharma Pātañjala, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 40, Issue 3, pages 259-276 The most complete copy of the ''Dharma Patañjala'' manuscript is now held at the Staatsbibliothek in Berlin. By the early 21st century, scholars had located 37 editions of Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras'' published between 1874 and 1992, and 82 different manuscripts, from various locations in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Europe and the United States, many in Sanskrit, some in different North and South Indian languages. The numerous historical variants show that the text was a living document and it was changed as these manuscripts were transmitted or translated, with some ancient and medieval manuscripts marked with "corrections" in the margin of the pages and elsewhere by unknown authors and for unclear reasons. This has made the chronological study of Yoga school of philosophy a difficult task.Philipp Maas (2010)
On the Written Transmission of the ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra''
in "From Vasubandhu to Caitanya, Studies in Indian Philosophy and its Textual History" (Editors: Johannes Bronkhorst und Karin Preisendanz), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 157-172 Many commentaries have been written on the ''Yoga Sutras''.

Medieval commentaries

Medieval commentaries on the Yoga sutras include: * Vācaspati Miśra (AD 900–980) who composed the commentary ''Tattvavaiśāradī'', described as the "most significant early subcommentary". * Bhoja Raja's ''Raja-Martanda'', 11th century. *

Vijnanabhiksu Vijñānabhikṣu (also spelled ''Vijnanabhikshu'') was a Hindu philosopher from Bihar, variously dated to the 15th or 16th century, known for his commentary on various schools of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Yoga text of Patanjali. His scho ...

's 16th century ''Yogabhashyavarttika'' or simply ''Yogavarttika'' ("Explanation of the Commentary on the Yoga Sutras" of Vyasa). The writer was a Vaishnava philosopher and exegete who tried to harmonize Samkhya and Vedanta and held the

Bhedabheda Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman. Etymology ''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wo ...

view. * Ramananda Sarasvati's ''Yogamani-Prabha'' (16th century).

Modern translations and commentary

Countless commentaries on the ''Yoga Sutras'' are available today. The ''Sutras'', with commentaries, have been published by a number of successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to clarify issues of textual variation. There are also other versions from a variety of sources available on the

Internet The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, pub ...

. The many versions display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has not been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis, and the contextual meaning of many of the Sanskrit words and phrases remains a matter of some dispute. Modern translations and interpretations include: * 1852, 1853: First translation of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in English containing first two chapters by J.R Ballyntyne published by The Benaras College, in 1872 Govind Deva Shastri completed remaining two chapters. * 1882, 1885:The whole complete book was published in 1882 and final revised edition published in 1885. The Yoga Philosophy with comments of Bhojaraja, J.R Ballantyne, Govind Shastri Deva, edited by Tookaram Tatya, Bombay Theosophical publication fund. * 1883: Yoga Aporhism of Patanjali with the commentary of Bhoja Raja by Rajendra Lala Mitra, Asiatic Society of Bengal * 1890: The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, by Manilal Nabhubhai Dvivedi, Bombay Theosophical publication fund. * 1896:

, ''

Raja Yoga ''Raja'' (; from , IAST ') is a royal title used for South Asian monarchs. The title is equivalent to king or princely ruler in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The title has a long history in history of South Asia, South Asia and History of ...

'' provides translation and an in-depth explanation of ''Yoga Sutra''. * 1907:

Ganganath Jha Sir Gaṅgānāth Jhā (25 December 1872 – 9 November 1941) was a scholar of Sanskrit, Indian philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. Service At the age of 24, he was appointed a librarian of the Darbhanga state by its Maharaja. In 1902, he ...

's ''Yoga Sutras'' with the ''Yogabhashya'' attributed to Vyasa into English in its entirety. With notes drawn from Vācaspati Miśra's ''Tattvavaiśāradī'' amongst other important texts in the Yoga commentarial tradition. * 1912: Charles Johnston Dublin University:
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: The Book of the Spiritual Man
'. * 1914: The Yoga System of Patanjali with comment of Yoga Bhasya and explanation of Tatva Vicardi by James Haughton Woods, Harvard University Press * 1924: Patanjali Yoga Sutras with commentary of Vyasa and gloss of Vachaspati Mishra by Rama Prasad * 1953:

Swami Prabhavananda Swami Prabhavananda (December 26, 1893 – July 4, 1976) was an Indian philosopher, monk of the Ramakrishna Order, and religious teacher. He moved to America in 1923 to take up the role of assistant minister in the San Francisco Vedanta Society. ...

, ''Patanjali Yoga Sutras'', Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, India. * 1961:

I. K. Taimni I. K. Taimni (Iqbal Kishen Taimni, 1898–1978) was a professor of chemistry at the Allahabad University in India, and an influential scholar in the fields of Yoga and Indian philosophy. He was a leader of the Theosophical Society. Taimni authore ...

,
The Science of Yoga
' commentary with

Sutra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...

s in Sanskrit and translation and commentary in English. * 1963:

Swami Hariharananda Aranya Swami Hariharananda Aranya (1869–1947) was a yogi, author, and founder of Kapil Math in Madhupur, India, which is the only monastery in the world that actively teaches and practices Samkhya philosophy. His book, ''Yoga Philosophy of Patanjal ...

's ''Bhasvati''. * 1976:

Swami Satyananda Satyananda Saraswati (25 December 1923 – 5 December 2009), was a Sanyasi, yoga teacher and guru in both his native India and the West. He was a student of Sivananda Saraswati, the founder of the Divine Life Society, and founded the Bihar Sch ...

, ''Four Chapters of Freedom''. Yoga Publications Trust, Munger, Bihar, India. * 1978:

Swami Satchidananda Satchidananda Saraswati (; 22 December 1914 – 19 August 2002), born C. K. Ramaswamy Gounder and usually known as Swami Satchidananda, was an Indian yoga guru Modern yoga gurus are people widely acknowledged to be gurus of modern yoga in a ...

, ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''.

Integral Yoga Integral yoga, sometimes also called supramental yoga, is the yoga-based philosophy and practice of Sri Aurobindo and ''The Mother'' (Mirra Alfassa). Central to ''Integral yoga'' is the idea that Spirit manifests itself in a process of invol ...

, Yogaville. * 1978: P. Y. Deshpande, The Authentic Yoga, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A Heartfulness publication in January 2021 * 1989:

Georg Feuerstein Georg Feuerstein (27 May 1947 – 25 August 2012) was a German Indologist specializing in the philosophy and practice of Yoga. Feuerstein authored over 30 books on mysticism, Yoga, Tantra, and Hinduism. He translated, among other traditional texts ...

, ''The Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali: A New Translation and Commentary'', Inner Traditions International; Rochester, Vermont. * 1993: B. K. S. Iyengar, ''Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali''. HarperCollins. * 1996:

Barbara Stoler Miller Barbara Stoler Miller (August 8, 1940 – April 19, 1993) was a scholar of Sanskrit literature. Her translation of the '' Bhagavad Gita'' was extremely successful and she helped popularize Indian literature in the U.S. She was the president of the ...

, ''The Yoga Sutras Attributed to Patanjali; "Yoga – Discipline of Freedom''.

University of California Press The University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish scholarly and scientific works by faculty ...

, Berkeley. * 2003: Chip Hartranft, ''The Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali: A New Translation with Commentary'', Shambhala Classics, Boulder, Colorado. * 2009:

Edwin F. Bryant Edwin Francis Bryant is an American Indologist. Currently, he is professor of religions of India at Rutgers University. He published seven books and authored a number of articles on Vedic history, ''yoga'', and the Krishna tradition. In his resear ...

's ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary''. North Point Press, New York. * 2013: Swami Kriyananda, ''Demystifying Patanjali: The Yoga Sutras - The Wisdom of Paramhansa Yogananda''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, Nevada City.

Notes

References

Sources

;Printed sources * * * * * * * * * * * welve lectures held at the fourteenth World Sanskrit Conference (Kyoto, September 1–5, 2009)* * * * * * * * * * * * Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell. ;Web sources ;General references * Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of ''The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy''. * * * * *

External links

;Overview * Edwin Bryant
''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''
IEP ;Manuscripts
Manuscript
(

Alfred Foucher Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher (1865–1952), was a French scholar, who argued that the Buddha image has Greek origins. He has been called the "father of Gandhara studies", and is a much-cited scholar on ancient Buddhism in northwest Indian subcont ...

) from

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;Translations
James Woods, ''The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind; Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali (1914)''
Harvard University Press

translation by BonGiovanni, at

sacred-texts.com The Internet Sacred Text Archive (ISTA) is a Santa Cruz, California-based website dedicated to the preservation of electronic public domain religious texts. History The website was first opened to the public on March 9, 1999 by John Bruno Hare ...

''Yoga Sutras'' and related yoga texts
at sanskritdocuments.org

Arlington Center. Parallel Sanskrit,

IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...

and English text, and word-for-word translation ;Yoga bhashya
Ganganath Jha (1907), ''Yoga Philosophy with Vyasa Bhashya & Notes''
;Commentaries
Patañjali - ''Yoga-Sutras'': A word by word translation with grammar and comment

''The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' by Charles Johnston''Audiobook version''
* *
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Rutgers University Rutgers University (; RU), officially Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, is a Public university, public land-grant research university consisting of four campuses in New Jersey. Chartered in 1766, Rutgers was originally called Queen's ...

''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'': a Buddhist Commentary.

Audio lectures on the ''Yoga Sutras''
by Swami Harshananda, at

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''Yoga Sutras'' Online Program
by A. G. Mohan
''Yoga Sutras'' Commentary by a Modern Mystic.111 Audio lectures on the Yoga Sutras
by Swami Tattwamayananda
Science of Patanjali Yoga Sutras
{{DEFAULTSORT:Yoga Sutras Of Patanjali Hindu texts Sutras (Hinduism) Ancient yoga texts

Author and dating

Author

Dating

Compilation

''Yogabhashya''

Contents

Samadhi Pada

Sadhana Pada

Kriya Yoga

Ashtanga Yoga

Vibhuti Pada

Kaivalya Pada

Philosophy

Metaphysics

Soteriology

Epistemology

Philosophical roots and influences

Samkhya

Buddhism

Jainism

Influence

Translations and commentaries

Medieval commentaries

Modern translations and commentary

See also

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links