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The Xerias, ( el, Ξεριάς, from ξερός, "dry") is an
arroyo Arroyo often refers to: * Arroyo (creek), an intermittently dry creek Arroyo may also refer to: People * Arroyo (surname) Places United States ;California * Arroyo Burro Beach, a public beach park in Santa Barbara County, California * Arroyo ...
in the Argolid in
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
. Its ancient name was Charadros (Χάραδρος), which is still used, although its
Demotic Demotic may refer to: * Demotic Greek, the modern vernacular form of the Greek language * Demotic (Egyptian), an ancient Egyptian script and version of the language * Chữ Nôm, the demotic script for writing Vietnamese See also * * Demos (disa ...
name is by far the most common and used on modern maps. Under its ancient name, it is described in Pausanias's ''Description of Greece'' (2.25.2).


Geology and hydrology

The Xerias rises in the
Parnon Parnon or Parnonas ( el, Πάρνων/Πάρνωνας) or Malevos (Μαλεβός) is a mountain range, or massif, on the east of the Laconian plain and the Evrotas valley. It is visible from Athens above the top of the Argive mountains. The wes ...
massif at Mount Ktenias in
Arcadia Arcadia may refer to: Places Australia * Arcadia, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney * Arcadia, Queensland * Arcadia, Victoria Greece * Arcadia (region), a region in the central Peloponnese * Arcadia (regional unit), a modern administrative un ...
and flows east to
Argos Argos most often refers to: * Argos, Peloponnese, a city in Argolis, Greece ** Ancient Argos, the ancient city * Argos (retailer), a catalogue retailer operating in the United Kingdom and Ireland Argos or ARGOS may also refer to: Businesses ...
, where it forms the northern boundary of the city, and then turns south and winds around the city's east side before turning east again. It is generally dry in the summer, although
flash flood A flash flood is a rapid flooding of low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and depressions. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane, or tropical storm, or by meltwater from ice or snow flowing o ...
s can occur during storms. It meets the
Inachos In Greek mythology, Inachus, Inachos or Inakhos (Ancient Greek: Ἴναχος) was the first king of Argos, Peloponnese, Argos after whom a river was called Inachos (river), Inachus River,Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus), Apollodorus2.1.1/ref> t ...
east of the city, from whence the Inachos flows into the
Argolic Gulf The Argolic Gulf (), also known as the Gulf of Argolis, is a gulf of the Aegean Sea off the east coast of the Peloponnese, Greece. It is about 50 km long and 30 km wide. Its main port is Nafplio, at its northwestern end. At the entrance to ...
at
Nea Kios Nea Kios ( el, Νέα Κίος), is a small town and former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. Th ...
, but an
interlocking spur An interlocking spur, also known as an overlapping spur, is one of any number of projecting ridges that extend alternately from the opposite sides of the wall of a young, V-shaped valley down which a river with a winding course flows. Each of t ...
continues east and winds around the village of
Merbaka Merbaka ( el, Μέρμπακα), but officially Agia Trias (Αγία Τρίας, "Holy Trinity"), is a village in the province of Argolis, in the Peloponnese near Argos, Greece. It was officially renamed on December 29, 1953 Merbaka is thought to ...
.


Water management

The natural flow of the Xerias has been modified by
river engineering River engineering is a discipline of civil engineering which studies human intervention in the course, characteristics, or flow of a river with the intention of producing some defined benefit. People have intervened in the natural course and b ...
, including the creation of
pumping station Pumping stations, also called pumphouses in situations such as well drilling, drilled wells and drinking water, are facilities containing pumps and equipment for pumping fluids from one place to another. They are used for a variety of infrastru ...
s and
reservoirs A reservoir (; from French ''réservoir'' ) is an enlarged lake behind a dam. Such a dam may be either artificial, built to store fresh water or it may be a natural formation. Reservoirs can be created in a number of ways, including control ...
to control seasonal flooding, improve
sanitation Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage. Preventing human contact with feces is part of sanitation, as is hand washing with soap. Sanitation systems ...
, and provide more stable water supplies for agricultural and human use. Periodic flash floods in the area have resulted in
bridge scour Bridge scour is the removal of sediment such as sand and gravel from around bridge abutments or piers. Hydrodynamic scour, caused by fast flowing water, can carve out ''scour holes'', compromising the integrity of a structure. In the United States ...
that has destroyed bridges, roadways and other infrastructure and property in the vicinity of Argos. Serious floods occurred eight times between 1967 and 1997, and recent news reports confirm ongoing problems with flooding in 2014-15. In the wake of catastrophic flooding, there has been disagreement over whether the reservoirs or the practice of filling in of ditches and the planting of
citrus ''Citrus'' is a genus of flowering plant, flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as Orange (fruit), oranges, Lemon, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and lim ...
trees too close to the river has caused increased flooding, with competing local interests often pointing the finger at the other, and academics and government officials divided on the subject of how best to control the flooding. In addition, some scientists are of the opinion that the removal of
wetlands A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The ...
near the mouth of the Xerias to control the spread of
mosquito Mosquitoes (or mosquitos) are members of a group of almost 3,600 species of small flies within the family Culicidae (from the Latin ''culex'' meaning " gnat"). The word "mosquito" (formed by ''mosca'' and diminutive ''-ito'') is Spanish for "li ...
es and
malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. S ...
has paradoxically increased area water use in winter because a changing
microclimate A microclimate (or micro-climate) is a local set of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but sometimes with a substantial one. The term may refer to areas as small as a few squ ...
due to wetlands removal has increased the incidence of
frost Frost is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor in an above-freezing atmosphere coming in contact with a solid surface whose temperature is below freezing, and resulting in a phase change from water vapor (a gas) ...
on local farmers' citrus trees (sprinklers are used to prevent frost build-up). Agronomists are also concerned that increased reliance on
groundwater Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidate ...
in winter does not give
aquifers An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characterist ...
a chance to replenish, and could lead to
aquifer depletion Overdrafting is the process of extracting groundwater beyond the equilibrium yield of an aquifer. Groundwater is one of the largest sources of fresh water and is found underground. Groundwater depletion is comparable to a bank account in which mor ...
.


Strategic importance

Because of its strategic location, forming a
moat A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places moats evolved into more extensive ...
along the border of Argos, the river has been the site of important battles in classical and modern times.


Ancient

In ancient times, a road led from the Deiras Gate on the north side of the city to
Mantinea Mantineia (also Mantinea ; el, Μαντίνεια; also Koine Greek ''Antigoneia'') was a city in ancient Arcadia, Greece, which was the site of two significant battles in Classical Greek history. In modern times it is a former municipality in ...
, and a
temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
to
Ares Ares (; grc, Ἄρης, ''Árēs'' ) is the Greek god of war and courage. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. The Greeks were ambivalent towards him. He embodies the physical valor necessary for success in war b ...
and
Aphrodite Aphrodite ( ; grc-gre, Ἀφροδίτη, Aphrodítē; , , ) is an ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, and procreation. She was syncretized with the Roman goddess . Aphrodite's major symbols include ...
was situated along this road, outside the city walls but south of the river. Argive military officers were required to give a report of their conduct here before returning to the city, possibly at a nearby
amphitheatre An amphitheatre (British English) or amphitheater (American English; both ) is an open-air venue used for entertainment, performances, and sports. The term derives from the ancient Greek ('), from ('), meaning "on both sides" or "around" and ...
, and sacrifices and religious ceremonies relating to the military were conducted at the temple. In 235 BC, the Charadros was the site of a battle between the forces of Aratus of Sicyon, who was born at Argos and was desirous of liberating the city, and the Macedonian-backed Argive tyrant Aristippus of Argos. The battle was fought to a draw, with Aratus being wounded and retreating back to his fortified camp on one flank, while the other wing of his army routed the forces of Aristippus on the other flank and drove them back to the river. Aratus negotiated the withdrawal of his forces to the north; later, Aristippus would be killed at the battle of Cleonae.


Modern

On April 25, 1821, the Xerias became the site of a battle between Greek forces and Turks for control of Argos, led by Mustafa, deputy ('' kehya
bey Bey ( ota, بك, beğ, script=Arab, tr, bey, az, bəy, tk, beg, uz, бек, kz, би/бек, tt-Cyrl, бәк, translit=bäk, cjs, пий/пек, sq, beu/bej, sh, beg, fa, بیگ, beyg/, tg, бек, ar, بك, bak, gr, μπέης) is ...
'') to the absentee Turkish governor of the Morea,
Hurshid Pasha Hurshid Ahmed Pasha (sometimes written Khurshid Ahmad Pasha; tr, Hurşid Ahmed Paşa, ; died 30 November 1822) was an Ottoman-Georgian general, and Grand Vizier during the early 19th century. Early life He was born in the Caucasus and was of ...
. Mustafa's army included a large contingent of Turkish-allied
Cham Albanians Cham Albanians or Chams ( sq, Çamë; el, Τσάμηδες, ''Tsámidhes''), are a sub-group of Albanians who originally resided in the western part of the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece, an area known among Albanians as Chameria. T ...
under Elmez Aga. The Greeks in the town were led by a triumvirate of Paparsenis Krestas, Demetrios Tsorkis, and
Ioannis Yiannouzas Ioannis or Ioannes ( el, Ιωάννης), shortened to Giannis or Yannis (Γιάννης) is a Greek given name cognate with Johannes and John and the Arabic name Yahya . Notable people with the name include: * Ioannis I, Tzimiskis, Byzantine Emper ...
, the eldest son of admiral
Laskarina Bouboulina Laskarina Bouboulina ( el, Λασκαρίνα Μπουμπουλίνα; 1771 – 22 May 1825) was a Greek naval commander, heroine of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, and considered the first woman to attain the rank of admiral. She was b ...
. Yiannouzas was slain, along with about 700 other Greeks, including civilians, and according to local accounts, many women and girls were captured by the Turks and sold into
slavery Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
. Many of the Greek casualties were inflicted by Turkish artillery fire from across the Xerias. Afterwards, the Turkish forces moved on
Nafplio Nafplio ( ell, Ναύπλιο) is a coastal city located in the Peloponnese in Greece and it is the capital of the regional unit of Argolis and an important touristic destination. Founded in antiquity, the city became an important seaport in the ...
and then to reinforce the Turkish garrison at
Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis may refer to: Cities and other geographic units Greece *Tripoli, Greece, the capital of Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in ...
, which was being besieged by the Greeks. Despite their superior numbers and having taken the towns of Nafplio and Argos, the Turks could not or would not take their
citadel A citadel is the core fortified area of a town or city. It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center. The term is a diminutive of "city", meaning "little city", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core. In ...
s, possibly due to Mustafa's orders to hurry to the relief of Tripoli, and partly due to problems with his guns, which were suitable for anti-personnel operations but not the reduction of the strong Venetian-engineered fortifications in the Peloponnese. The Turks brought thirty
artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during siege ...
pieces with them and trained gunners, but the artillery seems to have been of sub-standard quality and by the end of the Siege of Tripoli, only seven pieces were found to be in working order.


Notes


References


External links


Satellite mapCar swept away in Xerias flash flood News article in Greek; includes photographs of infrastructure destroyed by flash flooding {{in lang, el
Rivers of Greece Landforms of Argolis Rivers of Peloponnese (region) Drainage basins of the Aegean Sea