Władysław Bortnowski (12 November 1891 – 21 November 1966) was a Polish historian, military commander and one of the highest ranking
generals of the Polish Army
The Land Forces () are the land forces of the Polish Armed Forces. They currently contain some 62,000 active personnel and form many components of the European Union and NATO deployments around the world. Poland's recorded military history stre ...
. He is most famous for commanding the
Pomorze Army The Pomeranian Army ( pl, Armia Pomorze) was one of the Polish armies defending against the 1939 Invasion of Poland. It was officially created on March 23, 1939. Led by General dywizji Władysław Bortnowski, it consisted of 5 infantry divisions, ...
in the
Battle of Bzura
The Battle of the Bzura (or the Battle of Kutno) was the largest Polish counter-attack of the German invasion of Poland and was fought from 9 to 19 September.''The Second World War: An Illustrated History '', Putnam, 1975, Google Print snippet ...
during the
invasion of Poland
The invasion of Poland (1 September – 6 October 1939) was a joint attack on the Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union which marked the beginning of World War II. The German invasion began on 1 September 1939, one week af ...
in 1939. He is also notable for serving as president of the
Józef Piłsudski Institute of America
The Józef Piłsudski Institute of America (full name: Józef Piłsudski Institute of America for Research in the Modern History of Poland) was created in New York City in July 1943. It is an archive, museum and research center devoted to the stud ...
between 1961 and 1962.
Education and the Great War
Bortnowski was born on 12 November 1891 in
Radom
Radom is a city in east-central Poland, located approximately south of the capital, Warsaw. It is situated on the Mleczna River in the Masovian Voivodeship (since 1999), having previously been the seat of a separate Radom Voivodeship (1975� ...
,
Congress Poland
Congress Poland, Congress Kingdom of Poland, or Russian Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state, a successor to Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. I ...
,
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War ...
. Upon graduating from a gymnasium in
Zhytomir
Zhytomyr ( uk, Жито́мир, translit=Zhytomyr ; russian: Жито́мир, Zhitomir ; pl, Żytomierz ; yi, זשיטאָמיר, Zhitomir; german: Schytomyr ) is a city in the north of the western half of Ukraine. It is the administrative ...
, he enrolled into the
Moscow State University
M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU; russian: Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова) is a public research university in Moscow, Russia and the most prestigious ...
as a medical student, only to transfer after one year to the
Jagiellonian University
The Jagiellonian University ( Polish: ''Uniwersytet Jagielloński'', UJ) is a public research university in Kraków, Poland. Founded in 1364 by King Casimir III the Great, it is the oldest university in Poland and the 13th oldest university in ...
in
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
. There, he completed his medical studies. From 1908, he was a member of the
Union for Active Struggle, and from 1912, a member of the
Riflemen's Association. In 1913, he completed his training as a
NCO, followed by his graduation as an officer in the ranks of the
Rifleman's Association. With the outbreak of the
Great War
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, Bortnowski interrupted his higher studies and joined the
Polish Legions where he commanded a platoon in the ranks of the 1st Infantry Regiment. Next, as a
second lieutenant
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces, comparable to NATO OF-1 rank.
Australia
The rank of second lieutenant existed in the military forces of the Australian colonies and Australian Army unt ...
, he commanded a company in the 5th Infantry Regiment, followed by a position as
adjutant
Adjutant is a military appointment given to an officer who assists the commanding officer with unit administration, mostly the management of human resources in an army unit. The term is used in French-speaking armed forces as a non-commission ...
of the 7th Infantry Regiment of the
1st Brigade. On Christmas Day 1914, Bortnowski was wounded at the
battle of Łowczówek. Following the events of the
Oath Crisis
The Oath crisis ( pl, Kryzys przysięgowy) was a World War I political conflict between the Imperial German Army command and the Józef Piłsudski-led Polish Legions.
Initially supporting the Central Powers against Imperial Russia, Piłsuds ...
in 1917, he was arrested and interned at the
Fort Beniaminów POW camp in
Beniaminów
Beniaminów is a village in Poland. It has approximately 190 inhabitants (1998) and is located in the Masovian Voivodship, east of Warsaw, between Legionowo and Nieporęt.
Within the village are remnants of a 19th-century fort.
In 1917, af ...
from July 1917 until his release in April 1918. From his release from Beniaminów to October 1918, Bortnowski acted as commander of the Kraków branch of the
Polish Military Organisation
The Polish Military Organisation, PMO ( pl, Polska Organizacja Wojskowa, POW) was a secret military organization which formed during World War I (1914-1918). Józef Piłsudski founded the group in August 1914; it adopted the name ''POW'' in Novem ...
.
Polish–Ukrainian War and Polish–Soviet War
On October 31, 1918,
Lieutenant Colonel
Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of the world, above a major and below a colonel. Several police forces in the United States use the rank of lieutenant colon ...
Bortnowski joined the
Polish Army
The Land Forces () are the land forces of the Polish Armed Forces. They currently contain some 62,000 active personnel and form many components of the European Union and NATO deployments around the world. Poland's recorded military history stre ...
which was reborn after Poland had regained her
independence at the conclusion of World War I. Initially, he led a company in the 5th Infantry Regiment, and was later promoted to lead a battalion of the 5th Infantry Regiment. In November 1918, he participated in both the
Sieges of Przemyśl and
Lwów
Lviv ( uk, Львів) is the largest city in Western Ukraine, western Ukraine, and the List of cities in Ukraine, seventh-largest in Ukraine, with a population of . It serves as the administrative centre of Lviv Oblast and Lviv Raion, and is o ...
. From May 1919, Bortnowski worked as a
Teaching Assistant
A teaching assistant or teacher's aide (TA) or education assistant (EA) or team teacher (TT) is an individual who assists a teacher with instructional responsibilities. TAs include ''graduate teaching assistants'' (GTAs), who are graduate stud ...
during the very first post-war sessions at the
War School of the General Staff of the War College in Warsaw.
With the onset of the
Polish–Soviet War
The Polish–Soviet War (Polish–Bolshevik War, Polish–Soviet War, Polish–Russian War 1919–1921)
* russian: Советско-польская война (''Sovetsko-polskaya voyna'', Soviet-Polish War), Польский фронт (' ...
, Bortnowski remained at his teaching position in Warsaw until December 1919. From October 10, 1919, he served as an operations officer of the
Polish 1st Legions Infantry Division
Polish 1st Legions Infantry Division () was a tactical unit of the Polish Army between the World Wars. Formed on February 20, 1919, partially of veterans of the I Brigade of the Polish Legions, the unit saw extensive action during the Polish-Bol ...
, composed mostly of his colleagues from the
Polish Legions. Next, he served as Chief of the 3rd Operational Group Branch led by
General Edward Rydz-Śmigły. Next, Bortnowski served as Chief of the 3rd Branch of the 3rd Army, and from October 1920, as
chief of staff
The title chief of staff (or head of staff) identifies the leader of a complex organization such as the armed forces, institution, or body of persons and it also may identify a principal staff officer (PSO), who is the coordinator of the supporti ...
of the 3rd Army led by
Zygmunt Zieliński.
Interwar period
After the conclusion of the
Polish–Soviet War
The Polish–Soviet War (Polish–Bolshevik War, Polish–Soviet War, Polish–Russian War 1919–1921)
* russian: Советско-польская война (''Sovetsko-polskaya voyna'', Soviet-Polish War), Польский фронт (' ...
, Bortnowski traveled to Paris, France, where he began training at the
École Supérieure de Guerre The ''École supérieure de guerre'' ("Superior School of Warfare") was the most senior military education institute and staff college of the French Army, from 1876 until 1993, when it was merged into the inter-service ' (Joint Defense College), wh ...
on November 1, 1920. In September 1922, he graduated and returned to Poland where he received further training at various posts, notably in the staff of the Army Inspectorate in
Wilno
Vilnius ( , ; see also #Etymology and other names, other names) is the capital and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city of Lithuania, with a population of 592,389 (according to the state register) or 625,107 (according to the munic ...
(modern Vilnius, Lithuania). On August 15, 1924, he was promoted to the rank of
colonel
Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge ...
and in October of the following year, he became the commanding officer of the
Kutno
Kutno is a city located in central Poland with 42,704 inhabitants (2021) and an area of . Situated in the Łódź Voivodeship since 1999, previously it was part of Płock Voivodeship (1975–1998) and it is now the capital of Kutno County.
Dur ...
-based 37th Infantry Regiment. After the
May Coup d'État in 1926, he served as the Chief of the 3rd Branch of the General Army Staff for two months starting in November. In February 1928, he was appointed commander of the
26th Infantry Division in
Skierniewice
Skierniewice is a city in central Poland with 47,031 inhabitants (2021), situated in the Łódź Voivodeship (since 1999), previously capital of Skierniewice Voivodeship (1975–1998). It is the capital of Skierniewice County. The town is situate ...
. From June 1930, he was transferred to
Poznań
Poznań () is a city on the River Warta in west-central Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business centre, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint Joh ...
where he was appointed commander of the
14th Infantry Division. In October 1930, was assigned to the Army Inspectorate in Toruń as an officer. On November 1, 1931, he took command of the
Zamość
Zamość (; yi, זאמאשטש, Zamoshtsh; la, Zamoscia) is a historical city in southeastern Poland. It is situated in the southern part of Lublin Voivodeship, about from Lublin, from Warsaw. In 2021, the population of Zamość was 62,021.
...
-based
3rd Legions Infantry Division, one of the most prestigious units of the Polish Army.
On January 1, 1932, Bortnowski was promoted to the rank of
brigadier general
Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointe ...
by
President Ignacy Mościcki. Starting from October 12, 1935, he served as an Inspector General of the Armed Forces at Toruń. In the Autumn of 1938, Bortnowski took command of the
Independent Operational Group Silesia which took participation in the occupation of Czechoslovak territory resulting from the
Munich Agreement
The Munich Agreement ( cs, Mnichovská dohoda; sk, Mníchovská dohoda; german: Münchner Abkommen) was an agreement concluded at Munich on 30 September 1938, by Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy. It provided "cession to Germany ...
. Specifically, Bortnowski's troops occupied the Czechoslovak territory of
Zaolzie
Trans-Olza ( pl, Zaolzie, ; cs, Záolží, ''Záolší''; german: Olsa-Gebiet; Cieszyn Silesian: ''Zaolzi''), also known as Trans-Olza Silesia ( Polish: ''Śląsk Zaolziański''), is a territory in the Czech Republic, which was disputed betwe ...
. The popularity of Bortnowski after his successful invasion and occupation of Zaolzie was so great back in Poland, that he was planned to replace
Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły as commander-in-chief when the latter was to run for the presidency in the planned 1940 elections.
Prior to the outbreak of the
September Campaign
The invasion of Poland (1 September – 6 October 1939) was a joint attack on the Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union which marked the beginning of World War II. The German invasion began on 1 September 1939, one week af ...
in September 1939, Bortnowski was promoted to the rank of
division general on March 1, 1939, and became the commanding officer of
Pomeranian Army, the northernmost of the
Polish armies
The following is a list of Polish Armies during World War II, together with their commanders and brigade and division-sized units. For a more detailed list see: Polish army order of battle in 1939.
{, border=0 cellpadding=2
, -
, width=10 bgc ...
to take part in the war.
September Campaign
During the
September Campaign
The invasion of Poland (1 September – 6 October 1939) was a joint attack on the Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union which marked the beginning of World War II. The German invasion began on 1 September 1939, one week af ...
, also known as the Polish Defensive War, Bortnowski commanded the
Pomeranian Army. Having been surrounded from two sides by Nazi German forces, the Pomeranian Army was forced to fight several bloody battles while retreating southwards towards
Poznań
Poznań () is a city on the River Warta in west-central Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business centre, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint Joh ...
and
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officiall ...
, including the
Battle of Tuchola Forest
The Battle of Tuchola Forest (german: Schlacht in der Tucheler Heide, pl, Bitwa w Borach Tucholskich) was one of the first battles of World War II, during the invasion of Poland. The battle occurred from 1 September to 5 September 1939 and resul ...
.
On 9 September, Bortnowski subordinated the Pomeranian Army under the
Poznań Army
Army Poznań ( pl, Armia Poznań) led by Major General Tadeusz Kutrzeba was one of the Polish Armies during the Invasion of Poland in 1939.
Tasks
Flanked by Armia Pomorze to the north and Łódź Army to the south, the Army was to provide fla ...
led by General
Tadeusz Kutrzeba. Next, the combined forces of the Pomeranian and Poznań Armies took part in the
Battle of the Bzura
The Battle of the Bzura (or the Battle of Kutno) was the largest Polish counter-attack of the German invasion of Poland and was fought from 9 to 19 September.''The Second World War: An Illustrated History '', Putnam, 1975, Google Print snippet ...
, a counter-offensive devised by Kutrzeba. Bortnowski's forces were most notable for fighting near the outskirts of
Łowicz
Łowicz is a town in central Poland with 27,896 inhabitants (2020). It is situated in the Łódź Voivodeship (since 1999); previously, it was in Skierniewice Voivodeship (1975–1998). Together with a nearby station of Bednary, Łowicz is a m ...
and
Sochaczew
Sochaczew () is a town in central Poland, with 38,300 inhabitants (2004). In the Masovian Voivodeship (since 1999), formerly in Skierniewice Voivodeship (1975–1998). It is the capital of Sochaczew County.
Sochaczew has a narrow-gauge railway ...
.
On 14 September, he was ordered to retreat onto the northern side of the
Bzura River which resulted in the definite retreat of both the Pomeranian and Poznań Armies towards Warsaw. On 21 September, Borntowski was captured by German forces and held as a prisoner-of-war.
German captivity and post-war life
Bortnowski spent the rest of World War II in various Nazi prisoner-of-war camps, such as
Oflag IV-B Koenigstein
An Oflag (from german: Offizierslager) was a type of prisoner of war camp for officers which the German Army established in World War I in accordance with the requirements of the 1899 Hague Convention, and in World War II in accordance with the ...
,
Oflag VIII-E Johannisbrunn and finally
Oflag VII-A Murnau
Oflag VII-A Murnau was a German Army prisoner-of-war camp for Polish Army officers during World War II. It was located north of the Bavarian town of Murnau am Staffelsee.
Camp history
The camp was created in September 1939. It consisted of an ...
. Liberated in 1945 by American forces, he remained in exile after the war. Initially in Great Britain, where he was one of the founders of the
Józef Piłsudski Institute in London, he eventually emigrated to the United States in 1954. He is most commonly associated with the
Polish Independence League and the
Józef Piłsudski Institute of America
The Józef Piłsudski Institute of America (full name: Józef Piłsudski Institute of America for Research in the Modern History of Poland) was created in New York City in July 1943. It is an archive, museum and research center devoted to the stud ...
. He served on the institute's committee from November 30, 1954. From June 19, 1955, he served as the institute's vice-president, and he was appointed President of the Institute in 1961 and served until 1962. He died on November 21, 1966, in
Glen Cove, New York
Glen Cove is a city in Nassau County, New York, United States, on the North Shore of Long Island. At the 2020 United States Census, the city population was 28,365 as of the 2020 census.
The city was considered part of the early 20th century ...
. His funeral took place five days later on November 26, where he was laid to rest at the
Our Lady of Czestochowa Cemetery in
Doylestown, Pennsylvania
Doylestown is a borough and the county seat of Bucks County in Pennsylvania, United States. It is located northwest of Trenton,
north of Center City, Philadelphia,
southeast of Allentown, and southwest of New York City.
As of the 2020 ...
.
Controversy
Prior to his death on September 22, General
Mikołaj Bołtuć
Mikołaj Bołtuć (21 December 1893 in Saint Petersburg – 22 September 1939 near Łomianki) was a brigadier-general of the Polish Army, commander of the IV Polish infantry Division during World War II.
He was the son of Ignacy Bołtuć, Rus ...
, an officer serving in Bortnowski's Pomeranian Army, allegedly criticized Bortnowski's leadership during the September Campaign. He supposedly regretted that he had not "during the first days of the war – during the
Battle of Tuchola Forest
The Battle of Tuchola Forest (german: Schlacht in der Tucheler Heide, pl, Bitwa w Borach Tucholskich) was one of the first battles of World War II, during the invasion of Poland. The battle occurred from 1 September to 5 September 1939 and resul ...
, put a bullet through his (Bortnowski's) head and assumed command". Additionally, he allegedly stated that "if I die, let it be known that the Army and I died because of this son-of-a-bitch".
The above-mentioned statements made by General Bołtuć were publicised by General
Wiktor Thommée
Wiktor Thommée (1881–1962) was a Polish military commander and a brigadier general of the Polish Army. A veteran of the Great War and the Russian Civil War, he is best known for his command over Piotrków Operational Group and the battle of t ...
. On the other hand, Bołtuć's statements regarding Bortnowski and his leadership during September 1939 were contrary to the general opinion of the other officers who had served under Bortnowski's command in the Pomeranian Army.
General Bołtuć, who was remembered positively by Bortnowski himself, was supposedly hot-tempered in both word and action. During the September Campaign, Bołtuć dismissed both commanders of the two divisions that were part of his Operational Group. It is alleged that as a result of the bombardment during the
Battle of Bzura
The Battle of the Bzura (or the Battle of Kutno) was the largest Polish counter-attack of the German invasion of Poland and was fought from 9 to 19 September.''The Second World War: An Illustrated History '', Putnam, 1975, Google Print snippet ...
, as well as the break-through towards the
Modlin Fortress
Modlin Fortress ( pl, Twierdza Modlin) is one of the largest 19th-century fortresses in Poland. It is located in the town of Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki in district Modlin on the Narew river, approximately 50 kilometers north of Warsaw. It was o ...
, Bołtuć may have suffered from a nervous breakdown. Bołtuć attributed to Bortnowski the series of disastrous events of September 1939 that eventually resulted in
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
's and the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
's occupation of Poland. Specifically, Bołtuć criticized the "absurd" deployment of three large Polish Army units: the
Pomeranian Cavalry Brigade
Pomeranian Cavalry Brigade (Polish: ''Pomorska Brygada Kawalerii'') was a cavalry unit of the Polish Army in the interbellum period. It was created on April 1, 1937 out of the Cavalry Brigade "Bydgoszcz". Its headquarters were stationed in Bydgoszc ...
, the
9th Infantry Division and the
27th Infantry Division into the
Polish Corridor
The Polish Corridor (german: Polnischer Korridor; pl, Pomorze, Polski Korytarz), also known as the Danzig Corridor, Corridor to the Sea or Gdańsk Corridor, was a territory located in the region of Pomerelia (Pomeranian Voivodeship, easter ...
, which would allow Germany forces to cut Poland off from access to the Baltic Sea. Bołtuć was correct since General
Günther von Kluge's 4th Army quickly ecploited the tactical error. Kluge and his 4th Army captured the Corridor by smashing through the three Polish units and cut off the rest of Poland from the Baltic coast, where several Polish coastal defense units remained and were forced to defend alone, which resulted in the notable
Battle of Hel
The Battle of Hel ( pl, Obrona Helu, literally "the Defense of Hel") was a World War II engagement fought from 1 September to 2 October 1939 on the Hel Peninsula, of the Baltic Sea coast, between invading German forces and defending Polish uni ...
.
On the other hand, General Bortnowski had known of the tactical absurdity and had unsuccessfully appealed several times to his superiors prior to the invasion. Bołtuć's reaction and criticisms may be justified through the
Clausewitzian
Carl Philipp Gottfried (or Gottlieb) von Clausewitz (; 1 June 1780 – 16 November 1831) was a Prussian general and military theorist who stressed the "moral", in modern terms meaning psychological, and political aspects of waging war. His mos ...
philosophy in which the commander of a losing army holds the heaviest burden for the loss since he holds full responsibility for his army. With that interpretation, Bołtuć's criticisms of Bortnowski are justified in that Bortnowski was the commanding officer of the Pomeranian Army.
Awards and decorations
Among the military decorations he received are:
* Silver Cross of
Virtuti Militari
The War Order of Virtuti Militari ( Latin: ''"For Military Virtue"'', pl, Order Wojenny Virtuti Militari) is Poland's highest military decoration for heroism and courage in the face of the enemy at war. It was created in 1792 by Polish King S ...
* Commander of the
Legion of Honour
The National Order of the Legion of Honour (french: Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur), formerly the Royal Order of the Legion of Honour ('), is the highest French order of merit, both military and civil. Established in 1802 by Napoleo ...
(France)
*
Cross of Independence
Cross of Independence ( pl, Krzyż Niepodległości) was second highest Polish military decorations between World Wars I and II. It was awarded to individuals who had fought actively for the independence of Poland, and was released in three cla ...
(''Krzyż Niepodległości'')
* Commander's Cross with Star of the
Polonia Restituta
The Order of Polonia Restituta ( pl, Order Odrodzenia Polski, en, Order of Restored Poland) is a Polish state order established 4 February 1921. It is conferred on both military and civilians as well as on foreigners for outstanding achievemen ...
(earlier Officer's Cross)
*
Cross of Valour (''Krzyż Walecznych'' – 4 times)
*
Gold Cross of Merit
The Cross of Merit () is a Polish civil state decoration established on 23 June 1923, to recognize services to the state.
History
At the time of its establishment in 1923, the Cross of Merit was the highest civilian award in Poland. It was awa ...
(''Krzyż Zasługi'')
*
Latvian Order of Lāčplēsis – Third Class[ Dziennik Personalny Spraw Wojskowych nr 9 z 04.02.1926] Order Number 1904
References
Bibliography
* Konrad Ciechanowski, Armia "Pomorze" 1939, Warszawa, 1983.
* Jerzy Kirchmayer: ''Pamiętniki'', Warszawa, 1987.
* Tadeusz Kryska-Karski i Stanisław Żurakowski, ''Generałowie Polski Niepodległej'', Warszawa, 1991.
* Kazimierz Pindel, ''Obrona Narodowa 1937–1939'', Warszawa, 1979.
* Piotr Stawecki, ''Słownik biograficzny generałów Wojska Polskiego 1918–1939'', Warszawa 1994.
General Władysław Bortnowskiego Archive in the collections of the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bortnowski, Wladyslaw
1891 births
1966 deaths
People from Radom
People from Radom Governorate
Polish emigrants to the United States
Polish generals
20th-century Polish historians
Polish male non-fiction writers
Polish military personnel of World War II
Jagiellonian University alumni
Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari
Commanders with Star of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Recipients of the Cross of Independence
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)
Recipients of the Gold Cross of Merit (Poland)
Individuals associated with the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany