The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the
western Deccan,
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This
Kannadiga
The Kannada people or Kannadigaru IAST">nowiki/>IAST:_Kannadadavaru_or_Kannadigas_(English_term).html" ;"title="IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowiki/>IAST: Kannadadavaru or Kannadigas (English term)">IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowik ...
dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's
Basavakalyan
Basavakalyana is a city and municipal council in the Bidar District of the Indian state of Karnataka.
History
Before India's independence, Basavakalyan was called Kalyani. After independence and division of states on linguistic basis in 1956, ...
in the modern Bidar District of
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
state, and alternatively the ''Later Chalukya'' from its theoretical relationship to the 6th-century
Chalukya dynasty of
Badami
Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from CE 540 to 757. It is famous for its rock cut monumen ...
. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous
Eastern Chalukyas of
Vengi
Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
, a separate dynasty. Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the
Rashtrakuta
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
empire of
Manyakheta
Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
controlled most of
Deccan
The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...
and
Central India
Central India is a loosely defined geographical region of India. There is no clear official definition and various ones may be used. One common definition consists of the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, which are included in alm ...
for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the
Paramara
The Paramara dynasty (IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs.
The dynasty was established in either th ...
dynasty of
Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
,
Tailapa II
Tailapa II (r. c. 973-997), also known as Taila II and by his title ''Ahavamalla'', was the founder of the Western Chalukya dynasty in southern India. Tailapa claimed descent from the earlier Chalukyas of Vatapi, and initially ruled as a Rashtr ...
, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruling from
Bijapur
Bijapur, officially known as Vijayapura, is the district headquarters of Bijapur district of the Karnataka state of India. It is also the headquarters for Bijapur Taluk. Bijapur city is well known for its historical monuments of architectural ...
region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under
Someshvara I
Someshvara I (; ) was a king of the Western Chalukyas. Also known as "Ahavamalla" or "Trilokamalla", Someshvara succeeded his father Jayasimha II to the throne.
His several military successes in Central India made him a formidable ruler of a ...
who moved the capital to Kalyani.
For over a century, the two empires of
Southern India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the States and union territories of India, Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and T ...
, the Western Chalukyas and the
Chola dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
of
Tanjore
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of
Vengi
Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation. During the rule of
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Someshvara II, a political move he made by gaining the support of Chalukya vassals during the Chola invasion of Chalukya territory.Sen ...
, in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan, between the
Narmada River in the north and
Kaveri River in the south.
His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince, during the rule of Someshvara I, he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern
Bihar
Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Be ...
and
Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
.
During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the
Hoysalas
The Hoysala Empire was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur, but was later moved ...
, the
Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri
The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the western part of t ...
, the
Kakatiya dynasty
The Kakatiya dynasty (IAST: Kākatīya) was an Indian dynasty that ruled most of eastern Deccan region comprising present day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, and parts of eastern Karnataka and southern Odisha between 12th and 14th centuries. Th ...
and the Southern
Kalachuris of Kalyani
The Kalachuris of Kalyani, also Southern Kalachuris, were a 12th-century Indian dynasty, who ruled over parts of present-day northern Karnataka and Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan region between 1156 and 1181 CE (25 yea ...
, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century.
The Western Chalukyas developed an
architectural style
An architectural style is a set of characteristics and features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable. It is a sub-class of style in the visual arts generally, and most styles in architecture relate closely ...
known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the
Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the
Kasivisvesvara Temple at
Lakkundi
Lakkundi, also referred to as Lokkugundi, was a major city prior to the 14th-century, and is now a village in Gadag District of Karnataka, India. By 10th-century, it was already a major economic and commerce center with mint operations for South ...
, the
Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the
Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the
Mahadeva Temple
Shiva is a Hindu deity worshipped by Shaivism, Shaivaites in India as the destroyer of ignorance spread all across the universe. As one of the three main gods in the Hindu pantheon, there are temples dedicated to his worship in India (and abroad ...
at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in their native language
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
.
History
![Virgal (hero stone) in Praneshvara temple at Talagunda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Virgal_%28hero_stone%29_in_Praneshvara_temple_at_Talagunda.JPG)
Knowledge of Western Chalukya history has come through examination of the numerous Kannada language
inscriptions left by the kings (scholars
Sheldon Pollock
Sheldon I. Pollock (born 1948) is an American scholar of Sanskrit, the intellectual and literary history of India, and comparative intellectual history. He is the Arvind Raghunathan Professor of South Asian Studies at Columbia University. He was ...
and Jan Houben have claimed 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada),
[Pollock (2006), pp. 288–289, 332][Houben(1996), p. 215] and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in
Western Chalukya literature such as ''Gada Yuddha'' (982) in Kannada by
Ranna Ranna may refer to:
*Ranna, a subdivision of the town Auerbach in der Oberpfalz in Bavaria, Germany
* Ranna, Estonia, a village in the former municipality Pala Parish, Estonia
* Ranna (Danube), a river of Bavaria, Germany and of Upper Austria, trib ...
and ''Vikramankadeva Charitam'' (1120) in Sanskrit by
Bilhana
Kaviraj, Kavi Bilhana was an 11th-century Kashmiri Pandits, Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the ''Caurapañcāśikā''.
According to legend, Bilhana fell in love with the daughter of King Madanabhirama, Princess Yaminipurnatilaka, ...
.
[Kamath (2001), pp10–12, p100] The earliest record is dated 957, during the rule of
Tailapa II
Tailapa II (r. c. 973-997), also known as Taila II and by his title ''Ahavamalla'', was the founder of the Western Chalukya dynasty in southern India. Tailapa claimed descent from the earlier Chalukyas of Vatapi, and initially ruled as a Rashtr ...
when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present-day
Bijapur district,
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
.
[The province of Tardavadi, lying in the very heart of the Rashtrakuta empire, was given to Tailapa II as a ''fief'' (provincial grant) by Rashtrakuta ]Krishna III
Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
for services rendered in war (Sastri 1955, p162)[Kamath (2001), p101] The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami
Chalukya
The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynas ...
dynasty of the 6th century,
[poet ]Bilhana
Kaviraj, Kavi Bilhana was an 11th-century Kashmiri Pandits, Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the ''Caurapañcāśikā''.
According to legend, Bilhana fell in love with the daughter of King Madanabhirama, Princess Yaminipurnatilaka, ...
's 12th-century Sanskrit work '' Vikramadeva Charitam'' and Ranna's Kannada work ''Gadayuddha'' (982) and inscriptions from Nilagunda, Yevvur, Kauthem and Miraj claim Tailapa II was son of Vikramaditya IV, seventh in descent from Bhima, brother of Badami Chalukya Vikramaditya II
Vikramaditya II (reigned 733 – 744 CE) was the son of King Vijayaditya and ascended the Badami Chalukya throne following the death of his father. This information comes from the Lakshmeshwar inscriptions in Kannada dated 13 January 735 A.D ...
(Kamath 2001, p100)[Kings of the Chalukya line of Vemulavada, who were certainly from the Badami Chalukya family line used the title "Malla" which is often used by the Western Chalukyas. Names such as "Satyashraya" which were used by the Badami Chalukya are also name of a Western Chalukya king, (Gopal B.R. in Kamath 2001, p100)] while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas.
[Unlike the Badami Chalukyas, the Kalyani Chalukyas did not claim to be ''Harithiputhras'' of ''Manavysya gotra'' in lineage. The use of titles like ''Tribhuvanamalla'' marked them of as a distinct line (Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar in Kamath 2001, p100)]
The records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King, Chattigadeva of
Banavasi-12000 province (c. 967), in alliance with local
Kadamba chieftains. This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II.
[Moraes (1931), pp88-93] A few years later, Tailapa II re-established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of
Karka II
Karka II (ruled 972–973 CE) succeeded his uncle Kottigga Amoghavarsha to the Rashtrakuta throne. By this time the once great Rashtrakuta empire was declining. His able feudatory, the Western Ganga King Marasimha II Satyavakya defeated the Pal ...
by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramaras of Central India in 973.
[Later legends and tradition hailed Tailapa as an incarnation of the God ]Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
who fought 108 battles against the race of Ratta (Rashtrakuta) and captured 88 fortresses from them (Sastri 1955, p162)[According to a 973 inscription, Tailapa II helped by Kadambas of ]Hangal
Hangal, is a historic town in Karnataka, It is away from Hubli through NH 766E.
Location
Hangal lies about south of the city of Hubli-Dharwad, about west of the Tungabhadra river and east of the Arabian sea. It is located on state road o ...
, destroyed the Rattas (Rashtrakutas), killed the valiant Munja (of the Paramara kingdom), took the head of Panchala (Ganga dynasty) and restored the royal dignity of the Chalukyas (Moraes 1931, pp 93–94) After overpowering the Rashtrakutas, Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western Deccan by subjugating the Paramara and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River.
[Sastri (1955), p164] However, some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042.
[A minor capital of Jayasimha II (Cousens 1926, p10, p105)]
The intense competition between the kingdom of the western Deccan and those of the
Tamil country came to the fore in the 11th century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in the
doab
''Doab'' () is a term used in South Asia Quote: "Originally and chiefly in South Asia: (the name of) a strip or narrow tract of land between two rivers; spec. (with) the area between the rivers Ganges and Jumna in northern India." for the tract ...
region of the
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
and
Godavari River
The Godavari (IAST: ''Godāvarī'' od̪aːʋəɾiː is India's second longest river after the Ganga river and drains into the third largest basin in India, covering about 10% of India's total geographical area. Its source is in Trimbakeshw ...
called
Vengi
Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
(modern coastal
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
). The Western Chalukyas and the
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource. The imperial Cholas gained power during the time of the famous king
Rajaraja Chola I
Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...
and the crown prince
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I (; Middle Tamil: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājēndradēva Cōla; Old Malay: ''Raja Suran''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tami ...
.Chola Emperor
Rajaraja Chola I
Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...
conquered parts of Chalukya territory in present-day Southern Karnataka by subjugating the Western Ganga Dynasty of
Gangavadi. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were cousins of the Western Chalukyas but became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties with the Tamil kingdom. As this was against the interests of the Western Chalukyas, they wasted no time in involving themselves politically and militarily in Vengi. When King
Satyashraya
Satyashraya (; ), also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was a king of the Western Chalukya Empire. During a time of consolidation of the empire in the early 11th century, Satyashraya was involved in several battles with the Chola dynasty of Th ...
succeeded Tailapa II to the throne, he was able to protect his kingdom from Chola aggression as well as his northern territories in
Konkan
The Konkan ( kok, कोंकण) or Kokan () is a stretch of land by the western coast of India, running from Damaon in the north to Karwar in the south; with the Arabian Sea to the west and the Deccan plateau in the east. The hinterland ...
and
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
although his control over Vengi was shaky.In 1007 CE Chola crown-prince
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I (; Middle Tamil: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājēndradēva Cōla; Old Malay: ''Raja Suran''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tami ...
invaded Western Chalukyas and had a battle with Western Chalukya Emperor
Satyashraya
Satyashraya (; ), also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was a king of the Western Chalukya Empire. During a time of consolidation of the empire in the early 11th century, Satyashraya was involved in several battles with the Chola dynasty of Th ...
at Donur in Bijapur district of Karnataka. According to an inscription of Satyasraya from Dharwad, Rajaraja Nittavinoda Rajendra Vidyadhara, ornament of the Chola race, Nurmudi-Chola (one-hundred-crown Chola) invaded the Western Chalukya Empire in 1007 AD with an army of 900,000 soldiers, carrying fire and sword throughout the region. The invading troops advanced as far as
Donur in Bijapur district on their way to the Chalukya capital Manyakheta, where they were met by the Chalukya army under Satyashraya. The Tanjore big temple inscriptions and Hottur inscriptions state that Rajendra Chola I destroyed the Western Chalukya capital. The result of the battle was Cholas conquered Gangapadi and Nolambapadi. Satyashraya's successor,
Jayasimha II, fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c. 1020–21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king.
[Sen (1999), p383][Jayasimha's choice was Vijayaditya VII while the Cholas sought to place ]Rajaraja Narendra
Rajaraja Narendra () was the Eastern Chalukya king of the Vengi kingdom in South India. Rajaraja Narendra established the city Rajahmahendravaram. His period was famous for Social and Cultural heritage. During the time of Rajaraja Chola I, Raj ...
, son-in-law of Rajendra Chola I (Kamath 2001, p102 Shortly thereafter in c. 1024, Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama.
It is known from records that Jayasimha's son
Someshvara I
Someshvara I (; ) was a king of the Western Chalukyas. Also known as "Ahavamalla" or "Trilokamalla", Someshvara succeeded his father Jayasimha II to the throne.
His several military successes in Central India made him a formidable ruler of a ...
, whose rule historian Sen considers a brilliant period in the Western Chalukya rule, moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in c. 1042.
[Quote:"Beautified it so that it surpassed all the other cities of the earth" (Cousens 1926, p10)][Sen (1999), p384] Hostilities with the Cholas continued while both sides won and lost battles, though neither lost significant territory
[Ganguli in Kamath 2001, p103][Sastri (1955), p166] during the ongoing struggle to install a puppet on the Vengi throne.In 1066, Vikramaditya VI, Son of Someshwara I had invaded the Chola Empire penetrating as far as the capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram and threatening the city before being repulsed by Cholas.
[Sen (1999), p384][Someshvara I supported the cause of Shaktivarman II, son of Vijayaditya II while the Cholas preferred Rajendra, son of the previous king Rajaraja Narendra (Kamath 2001, p103)][Sastri (1955), p169] In the
Battle of Vijayawada which was fought in 1068 between Someshvara I and Chola Emperor
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola (1002 CE – 1070 CE) was a Chola emperor, who spent a major part of his life as a subordinate to two of his elder brothers Rajadhiraja I and Rajendra II, he is the son of Rajendra I. During his early reign he granted the ...
, Someshwara I and his son Vikramaditya VI suffered defeat and lost Vengi to the Cholas. After the battle, Someshwara I due to incurable illnes drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River (''Paramayoga'').
[Kamath (2001), p104][Sastri (1955), p170][Cousens (1926), pp10–11] Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south, Someshvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan, Gujarat,
Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
and
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
during his rule. His successor, his eldest son
Someshvara II
Someshvara II (; ) who was administering the area around Gadag succeeded his father Someshvara I (Ahavamalla) as the Western Chalukya king. He was the eldest son of Someshvara I. During his reign Someshvara II was constantly under threat from his ...
, feuded with his younger brother,
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Someshvara II, a political move he made by gaining the support of Chalukya vassals during the Chola invasion of Chalukya territory.Sen ...
, an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor of
Gangavadi in the southern Deccan when Someshvara II was the king. Before 1068, even as a prince,
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Someshvara II, a political move he made by gaining the support of Chalukya vassals during the Chola invasion of Chalukya territory.Sen ...
had invaded
Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
, weakening the ruling
Pala Empire
The Pāla Empire (r. 750-1161 CE) was an imperial power during the post-classical period in the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffi ...
. These incursions led to the establishment of ''Karnata'' dynasties such as the
Sena dynasty
The Sena dynasty was a Hindu dynasty during the early medieval period on the Indian subcontinent, that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The empire at its peak covered much of the north-eastern region of the Indian subcont ...
and Varman dynasty in Bengal, and the Nayanadeva dynasty in Bihar.,
[B.P. Sinha in George E. Somers, Dynastic History Of Magadha, p.214, Abhinav Publications, 1977, New Delhi, ][Sen (1999), p282][Majumdar, R. C. (1977), Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, p320, New Delhi, ] At the death of Someshvara I, his son Someshvara II came to the Chalukyan throne in April 1068 CE. Soon after a dispute broke out between him and his younger brother Vikramaditya and a civil war ensued in the Western Chalukya country. Vikramaditya VI went to Chola court and sought the help of
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola (1002 CE – 1070 CE) was a Chola emperor, who spent a major part of his life as a subordinate to two of his elder brothers Rajadhiraja I and Rajendra II, he is the son of Rajendra I. During his early reign he granted the ...
.
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Someshvara II, a political move he made by gaining the support of Chalukya vassals during the Chola invasion of Chalukya territory.Sen ...
was well received by the king and the king Virarajendra himself records that he recognised Vikramaditya VI as the king of Western Chalukya. Virarajendra married his daughter to Vikramaditya VI and forged an alliance with him, halting the long feud between the two empires. Vikramaditya VI won the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories: the Hoysala, the Seuna and the
Kadambas of Hangal. In 1075 CE Vikramaditya overthrew Someshawara II and became the Western Chalukya Emperor. In 1075-76 CE during the Chola reign of
Kulottunga I
Kulottunga I (;1025 CE - 1122 CE) also spelt Kulothunga (), was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1070 CE to 1122 CE succeeding his cousin Athirajendra Chola. He also served as the Eastern Chalukya king from 1061 CE to 1118 CE, succeeding his f ...
, the war began with the incursion of the Vikaramaditya's forces into the Chola territories and the two armies met in the Kolar district. What followed was the Chola counter-attack popularly known as the Nangili episode. In the ensuing battle, the Chalukyan army was completely routed and chased by the Chola forces from the rocky roads of Nangili all the way to the Tungabhadra via Manalur. Vikramaditya is said to have retreated hastily and fled.
[Sastri 1955, p172][Eulogising Vikramaditya VI, Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote in his ''Vikramanakadeva Charita'' that lord Shiva himself advised Chalukya Vikramaditya VI to replace his elder brother from the throne (Thapar 2003, p468)]
The fifty-year reign of Vikramaditya VI, the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers, was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to by historians as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".
[Vikramaditya VI abolished the ''saka'' era and established the ''Vikrama-varsha'' (Vikrama era). Most Chalukya inscriptions thereafter are dated to this new era (Cousens 1926, p11)][Vikramaditya's rule is mentioned as an era (''samvat'') along with ]Satavahana
The Satavahanas (''Sādavāhana'' or ''Sātavāhana'', IAST: ), also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana rule began in the late ...
Vikrama era 58 BCE, Shaka era, of 78 CE, Harshavardhana era of 606 CE (Thapar, 2003, pp 468–469)[Sen (1999), p386] Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north (Kadamba Jayakesi II of Goa, Silhara Bhoja and the Yadava King) and south (Hoysala Vishnuvardhana), he successfully dealt with the imperial Cholas whom he defeated in the battle of Vengi in 1093 and again in 1118. He retained this territory for many years despite ongoing hostilities with the Cholas.
[Quote:"From 1118, Ananthapala, Vikramaditya VI's famous general is described as the ruler of Vengi, other Chalukyan commanders are found established in other parts of Telugu country and the Chola power practically disappears for a number of years thereafter. Thus Kulotunga sustained another curtailment of his empire which by the end of his reign was practically confined to Tamil country and a relatively small area of the adjoining Telugu districts".(Sastri 1955, p175)][Quote:"Vikramaditya VI led an expedition against the Cholas in c. 1085 and captured Kanchi and held it for some years. Vikramaditya VI succeeded in conquering major parts of Vengi Kingdom in 1088. Kollipakei-7000, a province of Vengi was under his control for long after this. Vengi was under his control from c. 1093 to 1099 and though it was recaptured by the Cholas in 1099, he reconquered it in c. 1118 and held it till 1124" (Kamath 2001, p105). Vikramaditya VI successfully subdued the ]Hoysalas
The Hoysala Empire was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur, but was later moved ...
, the Silharas of Konkan, the Kadambas of Goa, the Pandyas of Uchangi, the Seuna
The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada River, Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the west ...
of Devagiri
Daulatabad Fort, also known as Devagiri Fort or Deogiri Fort, is a historic fortified citadel located in Daulatabad village near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. It was the capital of the Yadava dynasty (9th century–14th century CE), for a br ...
, the Kakatiya
The Kakatiya dynasty (IAST: Kākatīya) was an Indian dynasty that ruled most of eastern Deccan region comprising present day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, and parts of eastern Karnataka and southern Odisha between 12th and 14th centuries. Th ...
of Warangal
Warangal () is a city in the Indian state of Telangana and the district headquarters of Warangal district. It is the second largest city in Telangana with a population of 704,570 per 2011 Census of India, and spreading over an .
Warangal ser ...
, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chedi of Ratnapur and the rulers of the Malwa territories south of the Narmada river (Kamath 2001, p105)[Quote:"About AD 1118 Vikramaditya's diplomatic and military skill enabled the Western Chalukyas to end Chola ascendancy on Vengi and bring that province back within the sphere of influence of Kalyani"(Chopra 2003, p139, part1)][Quote:"From about 1118 to the end of Vikramaditya's reign, and for some years thereafter, the Chola power seized to exist in Vengi" (Sen 1999, p387)] This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern Deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north, earning him the titles ''Permadideva'' and ''Tribhuvanamalla'' (lord of three worlds). The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership, interest in fine arts and religious tolerance.
[Vijnyaneshavara, his court scholar in Sanskrit, wrote of him as a king like none other (Kamath 2001, p106)][Cousens (1926), p12] Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court. Poet Bilhana, who immigrated from far away
Kashmir
Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...
, eulogised the king in his well-known work ''Vikramankadeva Charita''.
[Bilhana called the reign "Rama Rajya" in his writing that consisted of 18 cantos. The last canto of this work is about the life of author himself who writes that the work was composed by him in gratitude for the great honor bestowed upon him by the ruler of ''Karnata'' (Sastri 1955, p315)][Bilhana was made ''Vidyapati'' (chief pandit) by the king (Cousens 1926, p12)] Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion.
[No other king prior to the Vijayanagara rulers have left behind so many records as Vikramaditya VI (Kamath 2001, p105)][Sen (1999), p387]
![Western Chalukyas of Kalyana King Somesvara I Trailokyamalla 1043-1068](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Western_Chalukyas_of_Kalyana_King_Somesvara_I_Trailokyamalla_1043-1068.jpg)
The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted both empires, giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel.
[Their feudatories, Hoysalas of Mysore region, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Seunas of Devagiri and the Pandyas of Madurai wasted no time in seizing the opportunity, (Sastri 1955,p158)] In the decades after Vikramaditya VI's death in 1126, the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command.
[Sastri (1955), p176] The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other. By the time of
Jagadhekamalla II
Jagadhekamalla II (r.1138–1151 CE) followed Someshvara III to the Western Chalukya throne. His rule saw the slow decline of the Chalukya empire with the loss of Vengi entirely, though he was still able to control the Hoysalas in the south and ...
, the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor,
Tailapa III
Tailapa III (r. 1151–1164 CE) succeeded Jagadhekamalla II to the Western Chalukya throne. His rule saw the beginning of the end of the Chalukya empire. Kakatiya dynasty's Prola II warred with him, defeated and took the Chalukya king captiv ...
, was defeated by the Kakatiya king Prola in 1149.
Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas. Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule, the Hoysalas and
Seunas also encroached upon the empire. Hoysala
Narasimha I
Narasimha I ( kn, ಒಂದನೆ ನರಸಿಂಹ) (r. 1152–1173 CE) was a ruler of the Hoysala Empire. His victory over his overlord Western Chalukya Empire King Tailapa III paved the way for the declaration of independence by his success ...
defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region. In 1157 the
Kalachuris of Kalyani
The Kalachuris of Kalyani, also Southern Kalachuris, were a 12th-century Indian dynasty, who ruled over parts of present-day northern Karnataka and Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan region between 1156 and 1181 CE (25 yea ...
s under
Bijjala II captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years, forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to
Annigeri
Annigeri is a taluk of Dharwad district in the state of Karnataka, India, located 20 km west of Gadag en route to Hubli and 35 km from Hubli.
Introduction
Annigeri ()is the place of birth of the famous Kannada poet Adikavi Pampa ...
in the present day
Dharwad district
Dharwad is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India.The administrative headquarters of the district is the city of Dharwad, also known as Dharwar. Dharwad is located 425 km northwest of Bangalore and 421&nbs ...
.
[Sen (1999), p388]
The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern Deccan from central India and called themselves ''Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras''.
[Kamath (2001), p107] Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders (''Mahamandaleshwar'') over the Karhad-4000 and Tardavadi-1000 provinces (overlapping region in present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra) with Mangalavada
or Annigeri
[Cousens (1926), p13] as their capital. Bijjala II's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him ''Mahabhujabala Chakravarti'' ("emperor with powerful shoulders and arms") indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas.
[Kamath (2001), p108] However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion,
Someshvara IV
Someshvara IV (; ) or ()Sastri(1955), p187 was the last king of the Western Chalukya empire. He made a brief attempt after 1189 to revive the Chalukya kingdom by defeating the waning Kalachuri kingdom. He managed to capture Basavakalyana briefl ...
made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani.
Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict.
[From the Minajagi record of 1184 (Kamath 2001, p109)][A Kalachuri commander called Barmideva or Brahma is known to have given support to the Chalukyas (Sastri 1955, p179–180)] During this time, Hoysala
Veera Ballala II
Veera Ballala II ( kn, ವೀರ ಬಲ್ಲಾಳ 2) (r. 1173–1220 CE) was the most notable monarch of the Hoysala Empire. His successes against the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Southern Kalachuris, the Pandyas of Madurai and the wani ...
was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire. He defeated Chalukya Someshvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains, but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris.
[Kamath (2001), p127] The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani. Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189.
[Sen (1999), pp388-389]
The overall effort by Someshvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in
Banavasi
Banavasi is an ancient temple town located near Sirsi in Karnataka. Banavasi was the ancient capital of the Kannada empire Kadamba that ruled all of modern-day Karnataka state. They were the first native empire to bring Kannada and Karnataka t ...
1189. After the fall of the Chalukyas, the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191, each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time.
[Sastri (1955), p180] This period saw the fall of two great empires, the Chalukyas of the western Deccan and the Cholas of Tamilakam. On the ruins of these two empires were built the Kingdoms of their feudatories whose mutual antagonisms filled the annals of Deccan history for over a hundred years, the Pandyas taking control over some regions of the erstwhile Chola empire.
[Sastri (1955), p192]
Administration
![Mallikarjuna group of temples at Badami](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Mallikarjuna_group_of_temples_at_Badami.jpg)
The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary, passing to the king's brother if the king did not have a male heir. The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the
Alupas
The Alupa dynasty (ಅಳುಪೆರ್, ಆಳ್ವೆರ್) (circa 2nd century C.E to 15th century C.E) was an ancient ruling dynasty of India. The kingdom they ruled was known as ''Alvakheda Arusasira'' and its territory spanned the coa ...
, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiya, the Seuna, the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces, paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor.
[Kamath (2001), p110] Excavated inscriptions record titles such as ''Mahapradhana'' (Chief minister), ''Sandhivigrahika'', and ''Dharmadhikari'' (chief justice). Some positions such as ''Tadeyadandanayaka'' (commander of reserve army) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of ''Dandanayaka'' (commander), showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills.
[Kamath (2001), p109]
The kingdom was divided into provinces such as ''Banavasi-12000'', ''Nolambavadi-32000'', ''Gangavadi-96000'', each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction. The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages, as in ''Belavola-300''. The big provinces were called ''Mandala'' and under them were ''Nadu'' further divided into ''Kampanas'' (groups of villages) and finally a ''Bada'' (village). A ''Mandala'' was under a member of the royal family, a trusted feudatory or a senior official.
Tailapa II
Tailapa II (r. c. 973-997), also known as Taila II and by his title ''Ahavamalla'', was the founder of the Western Chalukya dynasty in southern India. Tailapa claimed descent from the earlier Chalukyas of Vatapi, and initially ruled as a Rashtr ...
himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during the
Rashtrakuta
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
rule. Chiefs of ''Mandalas'' were transferable based on political developments. For example, an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi-12000 under King Someshvara III but was later transferred to Halasige-12000. Women from the royal family also administered ''Nadus'' and ''Kampanas''. Army commanders were titled ''Mahamandaleshwaras'' and those who headed a ''Nadu'' were entitled ''Nadugouvnda''.
[There was flexibility to the terms used to designate territorial division (Dikshit G.S. in Kamath 2001, p110)]
The Western Chalukyas minted punch-marked gold
pagodas
A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist but sometimes Taoist, ...
with Kannada and
Nagari legends
[Coins of Western Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found (Kamath 2001, p12)] which were large, thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side. They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion, ''Sri'' in Kannada,
a spearhead, the king's title, a lotus and others. Jayasimha II used the legend ''Sri Jaya'', Someshvara I issued coins with ''Sri Tre lo ka malla'', Someshvara II used ''Bhuvaneka malla'', Lakshmideva's coin carried ''Sri Lasha'', and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legend ''Sri Jagade''. The Alupas, a feudatory, minted coins with the
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and ''
Nagari'' legend ''Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya''.
Lakkundi
Lakkundi, also referred to as Lokkugundi, was a major city prior to the 14th-century, and is now a village in Gadag District of Karnataka, India. By 10th-century, it was already a major economic and commerce center with mint operations for South ...
in
Gadag district
Gadag is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. It was formed in 1997, when it was split from Dharwad district. As of 2011, it had a population of 1064570 (of which 35.21 percent was urban). The overall population increased by 13.14 perce ...
and Sudi in
Dharwad district
Dharwad is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India.The administrative headquarters of the district is the city of Dharwad, also known as Dharwar. Dharwad is located 425 km northwest of Bangalore and 421&nbs ...
were the main mints (''Tankhashaley''). Their heaviest gold coin was Gadyanaka weighing 96
grains
A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes ...
, Dramma weighed 65 grains, Kalanju 48 grains, Kasu 15 grains, Manjadi 2.5 grains, Akkam 1.25 grains and Pana 9.6 grain.
[Kamath (2001), p111]
Economy
![Open mantapa (hall) in Kalleshvara temple at Bagali 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Open_mantapa_%28hall%29_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali_1.JPG)
Agriculture was the empire's main source of income through taxes on land and produce. The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of
rice
Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima
''Oryza glaberrima'', commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown i ...
,
pulses
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the nec ...
, and
cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus ''Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor perce ...
in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with
areca
''Areca'' is a genus of 51 species of palms in the family Arecaceae, found in humid tropical forests from the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia and India, across Southeast Asia to Melanesia. The generic name ''Areca'' is derived from a name u ...
and
betel
The betel (''Piper betle'') is a vine of the family Piperaceae, which includes pepper and kava. The betel plant is native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious perennial, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel plan ...
being the chief cash crops. The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords. If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor.
[Thapar (2002), p373]
Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines.
[Thapar (2002), p378] Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities (gold, textiles, perfumes) and agricultural produce (black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar). Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates.
[Sastri (1955), p298]
Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or
Goudas. The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the ''Praja Gavunda'' (people's Gavunda) and the ''
Prabhu
''Prabhu'' means master or the Prince in Sanskrit and many of the Indian languages; it is a name sometimes applied to God. The term is also used by devotees of the Hindu God Lord Krishna/Vishnu as a title and form of address. It is also appended ...
Gavunda'' (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties.
[Thapar (2002), p379, p382]
The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century.
[Thapar (2002), p382] Almost all arts and crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis; records do not mention individual artists, sculptors and craftsman. Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched their names below their creations.
[Sastri (1955), p299]
Merchants organised themselves into powerful
guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...
s that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions. Their only threat was the possibility of theft from
brigands when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands. Powerful South Indian merchant guilds included the ''
Manigramam
Manigiramam, or manigramam, typically refers to a medieval merchant guild, organised by itinerant ethnic Indian traders, primarily active in south India.Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' Ne ...
'', the ''
Nagarattar
The Nagarathar (also known as Nattukottai Chettiar) is a Tamil caste found native in Tamil Nadu, India. They are a mercantile community who are traditionally involved in commerce, banking and money lending.
They use the title Chettiar and ...
'' and the ''
Anjuvannam
Anjuvannam (in Tamil and Malayalam, from Persian anjuman, and hanjama or hanjamana in Telugu or Kannada or hamyamana) typically refers to a medieval merchant guild, consisting of non-Indian traders (ethnic Persians and Arabs), primarily active ...
''. Local guilds were called ''nagaram'', while the ''
Nanadesis
The Nanadesis were a guild of traders who organized themselves into one of the biggest of the trading associations at the time of the Hoysala Empire. They developed significant trade contact with many areas, including foreign countries such as Ma ...
'' were traders from neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure. The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was the self-styled ''
Ainnurruvar
Ainnurruvar is a medieval merchant guild originating in the Tamil Nadu region of India between the eighth and 13th centuries. In this period, organised merchant guilds exerted considerable power and influence. ''Ainnurruvar'' was one of the most ...
'', also known as the 500 ''Svamis'' of Ayyavolepura (
Brahmins
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru o ...
and ''
Mahajanas
A Mahajana () refers to one the twelve beings of spiritual authority affiliated with the Hindu deity Vishnu, who are described to teach religious ideal, and who, by his conduct, sets an example for others to follow.
Literature
The Bhagavata Pu ...
'' of present-day
Aihole
Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
),
[Sastri (1955), p300][Thapar (2002), p384] who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire. It fiercely protected its trade obligations (''Vira Bananjudharma'' or law of the noble merchants) and its members often recorded their achievements in
inscriptions (''
prasasti''). Five hundred such excavated ''Prasasti'' inscriptions, with their own flag and emblem, the bull, record their pride in their business.
Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export taxes. The edicts of the Aihole ''Svamis'' mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such as
Chera,
Pandya, Maleya (
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
),
Magadh
Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...
,
Kaushal,
Saurashtra, Kurumba, Kambhoja (
Cambodia
Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
),
Lata
Lata (Hindi: लता) is a Hindu/Sanskrit Indian female given name, which means "creeper" and "vine". Lata may refer to:
Notable people named Lata
*Lata Bhatt (born 1954), Indian singer.
* Lata (born 1975), Musician.
*Lata Mangeshkar (1929–2 ...
(
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
), Parasa (
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
) and
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
. Travelling both land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor. Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds,
lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color.
As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, ...
,
onyx
Onyx primarily refers to the parallel banded variety of chalcedony, a silicate mineral. Agate and onyx are both varieties of layered chalcedony that differ only in the form of the bands: agate has curved bands and onyx has parallel bands. The c ...
,
topaz
Topaz is a silicate mineral of aluminium and fluorine with the chemical formula Al Si O( F, OH). It is used as a gemstone in jewelry and other adornments. Common topaz in its natural state is colorless, though trace element impurities can mak ...
,
carbuncles and
emeralds
Emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6) colored green by trace amounts of chromium or sometimes vanadium.Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr. and Kammerling, Robert C. (1991) ''Gemology'', John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. ...
. Commonly traded spices were cardamom, saffron, and cloves, while perfumes included the by-products of sandalwood,
bdellium
Bdellium (also bdellion or false myrrh) is a semi-transparent oleo-gum resin extracted from ''Commiphora wightii'' plants of India, and from '' Commiphora africana'' trees growing in sub-saharan Africa. According to Pliny the best quality came f ...
, musk,
civet
A civet () is a small, lean, mostly nocturnal mammal native to tropical Asia and Africa, especially the tropical forests. The term civet applies to over a dozen different species, mostly from the family Viverridae. Most of the species diversit ...
and rose. These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns.
[Sastri (1955), 301] The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with the
Tang Empire
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
of
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
, the empires of
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
and the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
in
Bhagdad, and by the 12th-century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports. Exports to
Song Dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
China included textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn, ebony and camphor. The same products also reached ports in the west such as
Dhofar
The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah G ...
and
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
. The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia, Arabia and Egypt.
[Thapar (2002), 383] The thriving trade center of
Siraf
Bandar Siraf ( fa, بندر سیراف), also Romanized as Bandar-e Sīraf; also known as Sīraf, Ṭāherī, and Tāhiri; as well as Bandar-e Ṭāherī and Bandar-i Ṭāhirī ( fa, بندر طاهری, Bandar-e Ṭāherī), is a city in the Ce ...
, a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the Indian merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them.
[Sastri (1955), p302] In addition to this, Siraf received
aloe
''Aloe'' (; also written ''Aloë'') is a genus containing over 650 species of flowering succulent plants.WFO (2022): Aloe L. Published on the Internet;http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4000001341. Accessed on: 06 Nov 2022 The most wid ...
wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments. The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments, this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants. Traveller
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
, in the 13th century, recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic, soil and grassland conditions.
Culture
Religion
![Virgal (hero stone) in Kedareshvara temple at Balligavi4](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Virgal_%28hero_stone%29_in_Kedareshvara_temple_at_Balligavi4.JPG)
The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century, coinciding with the defeat of the
Western Ganga Dynasty
Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (mo ...
by the Cholas in
Gangavadi, was a setback to
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
. The growth of
Virashaivism
Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as ''Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and '' Veerashaivism'' have been ...
in the Chalukya territory and
Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant.
[Kamath (2001), p112, p132] Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged,
Shravanabelagola
Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage des ...
and
Kambadahalli
Panchakuta Basadi (or Panchakoota Basadi) is a temple complex located in the Kambadahalli village of the Mandya district, Karnataka state, in southwestern India. It is one of the finest examples of South Indian Dravidian architecture of the Wes ...
. The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
's
Advaita
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (lit ...
philosophy.
[A 16th-century Buddhist work by Lama Taranatha speaks disparagingly of Shankaracharya as close parallels in some beliefs of Shankaracharya with Buddhist philosophy was not viewed favourably by Buddhist writers (Thapar, 2003, pp 349–350, p397)] The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at
Dambal
Dambala is a village in the gadag district of the state of Karnataka, India. It was an ancient center of Buddhism and remained so as late as the 12th century. Dambal is at an elevation of .
Demographics
India census, Dambala had a population ...
and
Balligavi.
[An inscription dated 1095 CE of Vikramaditya VI mentions grants to a ''Vihara'' of Buddha and Arya-Taradevi (Cousens 1926, p11)] There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth.
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through its association with
Basavanna
Basaveshwara, colloquially known as Basavanna, was a 12th-century CE Indian statesman, philosopher, poet, Lingayat social reformer in the Shiva-focussed bhakti movement, and a Hindu Shaivite social reformer during the reign of the Kalyani Chal ...
in the 12th century.
[It is said five earlier saints Renuka, Daruka, Ekorama, Panditharadhya and Vishwaradhya were the original founders of Virashaivism (Kamath 2001, p152)][However it is argued that these saints were from the same period as Basavanna (Sastri 1955, p393)] Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a
caste system
Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...
. In his
Vachanas
Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who live ...
(a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote "work is worship" (Kayakave Kailasa). Also known as the
Lingayats (worshipers of the ''Linga'', the universal symbol of Shiva), these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women.
[Thapar (2003), p399] This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood.
Ramanujacharya
Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...
, the head of the Vaishnava monastery in
Srirangam
Srirangam, is a neighbourhood in the city of Tiruchirappalli in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. A river island, Srirangam is bounded by the Kaveri River on one side and its distributary Kollidam on the other side. Considered as the first amon ...
, traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion (
bhakti marga). He later wrote ''Sribhashya'', a commentary on Badarayana
Brahmasutra
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...
, a critique on the
Advaita
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (lit ...
philosophy of Adi Shankara.
[He criticised Adi Shankara as a "Buddhist in disguise" (Kamath 2001, p151)] Ramanujacharya's stay in
Melkote
Melukote in Pandavapura taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one of the sacred places in Karnataka.It is built on rocky hills, known as Yadugiri, Yaadavagiri and Yadushailadeepa, overlooking the Cauvery valley. Melukote i ...
resulted in the Hoysala King
Vishnuvardhana
Vishnuvardhana (r. 1108–1152 CE) was a king of the Hoysala Empire in what is today the modern state of Karnataka, India. He ascended the Hoysala throne after the death of his elder brother Veera Ballala I in c.1108. Originally a followe ...
converting to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed.
The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries.
Akka Mahadevi
Akka Mahadevi ಅಕ್ಕ ಮಹಾದೇವಿ (c.1130–1160) was one of the early female poets of the Kannada literature and a prominent person in the Lingayat Shaiva sect in the 12th century. Her 430 extant Vachana poems (a form of spont ...
,
Allama Prabhu
Allamaprabhu ( kn, ಅಲ್ಲಮಪ್ರಭು) was a 12th-century mystic-saint and ''Vachana'' poet (called ''Vachanakara'') of the Kannada language, propagating the unitary consciousness of Self and Shiva. Allamaprabhu is one of the cele ...
, and a host of Basavanna's followers, including Chenna Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called
Vachanas
Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who live ...
in praise of
Lord Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
.
[Narasimhacharya (1988), p20] The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court,
Harihara
Harihara (Sanskrit: हरिहर) is the fused sattvika characterisation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) from Hindu theology. Hari is the form of Vishnu, and Hara is the form of Shiva. Harihara is also known as Shankaranarayana ("Shankara ...
and
Raghavanka
Raghavanka ( kn, ರಾಘವಾಂಕ) was a noted Kannada writer and a poet in the Hoysala court who flourished in the late 12th to early 13th century. Raghavanka is credited for popularizing the use of the native '' shatpadi'' metre (hexa m ...
, were Virashaivas.
[Sastri (1955), p361–362] This tradition continued into the
Vijayanagar empire
The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hinduism, Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana an ...
with such well-known scholars as Singiraja, Mallanarya, Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature.
[Kamath (2001), p182][Narasimhacharya (1988), p22] The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara.
[Mack (2001), pp35–36] Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya.
[Kamath (2001), p152] King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism.
Society
![Kirtimukha (gargoyle) sculpture on vesara tower in the Kedareshvara temple at Balligavi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Kirtimukha_%28gargoyle%29_sculpture_on_vesara_tower_in_the_Kedareshvara_temple_at_Balligavi.jpg)
The rise of
Veerashaiva
Veerashaivism is a sect within the Shaivism fold of Hinduism. According to tradition, it was transmitted by ''Panchacharyas'', ( kn, ಪಂಚಾಚಾರ್ಯರು, paṃcācāraya from sa, पंचचार्य, pañcācārya), or five ...
ism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing
Hindu caste system
The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of classification of castes. It has its origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mug ...
which retained royal support. The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period. Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent urban families. Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi's and
Kalachuris of Kalyani
The Kalachuris of Kalyani, also Southern Kalachuris, were a 12th-century Indian dynasty, who ruled over parts of present-day northern Karnataka and Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan region between 1156 and 1181 CE (25 yea ...
queen Sovala Devi's skill in dance and music. The compositions of thirty
Vachana
Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who live ...
women poets included the work of the 12th-century
Virashaiva
Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as ''Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and '' Veerashaivism'' have been ...
mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the ''
bhakti
''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
'' movement is well known.
[She was not only a pioneer in the era of Women's emancipation but also an example of a transcendental world-view (Thapar 2003, p392)] Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals.
[Sastri (1955), p286][This is in stark contrast to the literature of the time (like Vikramankadeva Charita of Bilhana) that portrayed women as retiring, overly romantic and unconcerned with affairs of the state (Thapar 2003, p392)] Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that
Sati
Sati or SATI may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi
* ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike
*Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer
*Sati, a character in ''Th ...
(a custom in which a dead man's widow used to
immolate
Immolation may refer to:
*Death by burning
*Self-immolation, the act of burning oneself
*Immolation (band), a death metal band from Yonkers, New York
*'' The Immolation'', a 1977 novel by Goh Poh Seng
*'' Dance Dance Immolation'', an interactive p ...
herself on her husband's funeral
pyre
A pyre ( grc, πυρά; ''pyrá'', from , ''pyr'', "fire"), also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite or execution. As a form of cremation, a body is placed upon or under the ...
) though present was on a voluntary basis.
[The Belathur inscription of 1057 describes the end of a widow called Dekabbe who committed Sati despite the requests of her parents not to while some widows such as Chalukya queen ]Attimabbe
Attimabbe (950-1020) was a noblewoman of the Western Chalukya Empire.
She was born at Punganur of Chittoor district in Andhra pradesh. She was the daughter of Feudatory Mallapa of chalukya king Tailapa II, and Ponnamayya. Attimabbe’s Father ...
long survived their deceased husbands (Kamath 2001, pp 112–113) Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the
Jains
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
who preferred to fast to death (
Sallekhana
''Sallekhana'' (IAST: ), also known as ''samlehna'', ''santhara'', ''samadhi-marana'' or ''sanyasana-marana'', is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by ...
), while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes (''Shoolabrahma'') or walking into fire on an eclipse.
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present,
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs. They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses. The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters (''Panchayat'').
[The intellectual qualifications of the Brahmins made them apt to serve as ministers and advisers of Kings(''Rajguru''), (Charles Eliot in Sastri 1955, p289)]
Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar.
[Sastri (1955), p288] People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (''Kusti'') or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime.
[Sastri (1955), p289] In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.
[The ''Manasollasa'' written by King ]Someshvara III
Someshvara III (; ) was a Western Chalukya king (also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas), the son and successor of Vikramaditya VI. He ascended the throne of the Western Chalukya Kingdom in 1126 CE, or 1127 CE.
Someshvara III, the third king in t ...
contains significant information of the social life of Western Chalukyan times (Kamath 2001, p112)
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues. Choirs, whose main function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu ''
Matha
A ''matha'' (; sa, मठ, ), also written as ''math'', ''muth'', ''mutth'', ''mutt'', or ''mut'', is a Sanskrit word that means 'institute or college', and it also refers to a monastery in Hinduism. '', Jain ''Palli'' and Buddhist ''
Vihara''.
[Orchestras were popularised by the Kalamukhas, a cult who worshipped Lord Shiva (Kamath 2001, p115)] These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries (''Saraswati Bhandara''). Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called ''Brahmapuri'' (or ''Ghatika'' or ''Agrahara''). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause. Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen.
[Sastri (1955), p292] The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics (''Vartta''), Political Science (''Dandaniti''), Veda (''trayi'') and Philosophy (''
Anvikshiki''), subjects that are mentioned as early as
Kautilya
Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...
s
Arthashastra
The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...
.
Literature
![Tripurantakesvara Temple Sculpture and Grill work at Balligavi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Tripurantakesvara_Temple_Sculpture_and_Grill_work_at_Balligavi.jpg)
The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada, and Sanskrit.
[Kamath (2001), p114] In a golden age of Kannada literature,
[Sen (1999), p. 393] Jain
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
scholars wrote about the life of
Tirthankaras
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English language, English: literally a 'Ford (crossing), ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''Dharma (Jainism), dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the ...
and
Virashaiva
Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as ''Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and '' Veerashaivism'' have been ...
poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called
Vachanas
Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who live ...
. Nearly three hundred contemporary ''Vachanakaras'' (''Vachana'' poets) including thirty women poets have been recorded.
[S.S.Basavanal in Puranik, p4452, (1992)][Sastri (1955), p361] Early works by
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
writers were on the epics,
Ramayana
The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...
,
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
,
Bhagavata
The Bhagavata tradition, also called Bhagavatism, refers to an ancient religious sect that traced its origin to the region of Mathura. After its syncretism with the Brahmanical tradition of Vishnu, Bhagavatism became a pan-Indian tradition ...
,
Puranas
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
and
Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time.
[Narasimhacharya (1988), pp18–20]
Most notable among Kannada scholars were
Ranna Ranna may refer to:
*Ranna, a subdivision of the town Auerbach in der Oberpfalz in Bavaria, Germany
* Ranna, Estonia, a village in the former municipality Pala Parish, Estonia
* Ranna (Danube), a river of Bavaria, Germany and of Upper Austria, trib ...
, grammarian
Nagavarma II
Nagavarma II (mid-11th or mid-12th century) was a Kannada language scholar and grammarian in the court of the Western Chalukya Empire that ruled from Basavakalyan, in modern Karnataka state, India. He was the earliest among the three most notable ...
, minister
Durgasimha
Durgasimha () was the minister of war and peace (''Sandhi Vigrahi'') of Western Chalukya King Jayasimha II (also known as Jagadekamalla, r. 1018–1042).Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1122 Durgasimha adapted the well-known set of fables, ''Panch ...
and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer
Basavanna
Basaveshwara, colloquially known as Basavanna, was a 12th-century CE Indian statesman, philosopher, poet, Lingayat social reformer in the Shiva-focussed bhakti movement, and a Hindu Shaivite social reformer during the reign of the Kalyani Chal ...
. Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the "three gems of Kannada literature".
[The other two gems are Adikavi Pampa and ]Sri Ponna
Ponna ( kn, ಪೊನ್ನ) (c. 945) was a noted Kannada poet in the court of Rashtrakuta Dynasty king Krishna III (r.939–968 CE). The emperor honoured Ponna with the title "emperor among poets" (''Kavichakravarthi'') for his ...
(Sastri 1955, p356) He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (''Kavi Chakravathi'') by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit. Of these, ''Saahasabheema Vijayam'' (or ''Gada yuddha'') of 982 in ''Champu'' style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between
Bhima
In Hindu epic Mahabharata, Bhima ( sa, भीम, ) is the second among the five Pandavas. The ''Mahabharata'' relates many events that portray the might of Bhima. Bhima was born when Vayu, the wind god, granted a son to Kunti and Pandu. Af ...
and
Duryodhana
Duryodhana ( sa, दुर्योधन, ) also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata.'' He was the eldest of the Kauravas, the hundred sons of the blind king Dhritarashtra and his queen Gandhari. Being ...
using clubs on the eighteenth day of the
Mahabharata war
The Kurukshetra War ( sa, कुरुक्षेत्र युद्ध ), also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the ''Mahabharata ( sa, महाभारत )''. The conflict arose from a dynastic succession struggle be ...
.
[A composition written in a mixed prose-verse style is called Champu (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12)] He wrote ''
Ajitha purana
The Ajita Purana was written by Ranna (Kannada poet), Ranna in 993 CE narrates the story of Ajitanatha, the second ''tirthankara'' of Jainism. This is the shortest in the Kannada language. It narrates two stories of the previous births of the ...
'' in 993 describing the life of the second
Tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
, Ajitanatha.
[This also is in ''Champu'' style and was written at the request of ]Attimabbe
Attimabbe (950-1020) was a noblewoman of the Western Chalukya Empire.
She was born at Punganur of Chittoor district in Andhra pradesh. She was the daughter of Feudatory Mallapa of chalukya king Tailapa II, and Ponnamayya. Attimabbe’s Father ...
, a pious widow of general Nagavarma who promoted the cause of Jainism (Sastri 1955, p356)[E.P.Rice (1921), p32]
Nagavarma II, poet laureate (''Katakacharya'') of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects.
[Narasimhacharya (1988), pp64–65,][E.P.Rice (1921), p34] His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. ''Kavyavalokana'' in poetics, ''Karnataka-Bhashabhushana'' on grammar and ''Vastukosa'' a lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive contributions.
[Nagavarma II was the teacher (''guru'') of another noteworthy scholar ]Janna
Janna (Kannada : ಮಹಾಕವಿ ಜನ್ನ) was one of the well-known Kannada poets of the early 13th century who also served in the capacity of a minister and a builder of temples. He graced the court of Hoysala empire King Veera Ba ...
who later adorned the court of Hoysala Empire
The Hoysala Empire was a Kannada people, Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka, India, Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially loca ...
(Sastri 1955, p358) Several works on medicine were produced during this period. Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha's ''Karnataka Kalyana Karaka''.
[Narasimhachar (1988), p.63]
A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called
Vachanas
Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who live ...
developed during this time. They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna,
Akka Mahadevi
Akka Mahadevi ಅಕ್ಕ ಮಹಾದೇವಿ (c.1130–1160) was one of the early female poets of the Kannada literature and a prominent person in the Lingayat Shaiva sect in the 12th century. Her 430 extant Vachana poems (a form of spont ...
,
Allama Prabhu
Allamaprabhu ( kn, ಅಲ್ಲಮಪ್ರಭು) was a 12th-century mystic-saint and ''Vachana'' poet (called ''Vachanakara'') of the Kannada language, propagating the unitary consciousness of Self and Shiva. Allamaprabhu is one of the cele ...
,
Channabasavanna
Channabasavanna also known as " Guru Channabasaveshwara " was Basava's nephew and one of the foremost Sharanas of the 12th century. He, along with Basava, Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi, played a pivotal role in the propagation of the Lingayat ...
and
Siddharama are the best known among them.
[Vachanas are disconnected paragraphs ending with a name attributed to lord ]Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
or one of his forms. The poems teach the valuelessness of riches, rituals and book learning and the spiritual privileges of worshipping Shiva, (B.L. Rice in Sastri 1955, p361)
In Sanskrit, a well-known poem (''
Mahakavya Mahākāvya (lit. great kāvya, court epic), also known as ''sargabandha'', is a genre of Indian epic poetry in Classical Sanskrit. The genre is characterised by ornate and elaborate descriptions of scenery, love, battles and so on — in short, eve ...
'') in 18 cantos called ''Vikramankadeva Charita'' by Kashmiri poet
Bilhana
Kaviraj, Kavi Bilhana was an 11th-century Kashmiri Pandits, Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the ''Caurapañcāśikā''.
According to legend, Bilhana fell in love with the daughter of King Madanabhirama, Princess Yaminipurnatilaka, ...
recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI. The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II.
[Thapar (2003), p394] The great Indian mathematician
Bhāskara II
Bhāskara II (c. 1114–1185), also known as Bhāskarāchārya ("Bhāskara, the teacher"), and as Bhāskara II to avoid confusion with Bhāskara I, was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. From verses, in his main work, Siddhānta Shiroman ...
(born c.1114) flourished during this time. From his own account in his famous work ''Siddhanta Siromani'' (c. 1150, comprising the ''Lilavati'', ''Bijaganita'' on algebra, ''Goladhaya'' on the celestial globe and ''Grahaganita'' on planets) Bijjada Bida (modern
Bijapur
Bijapur, officially known as Vijayapura, is the district headquarters of Bijapur district of the Karnataka state of India. It is also the headquarters for Bijapur Taluk. Bijapur city is well known for its historical monuments of architectural ...
) was his native place.
["Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians", Putta Swamy T.K., 2012, chapter=Bhaskara II, p331, Elsevier Publications, London, ]
''
Manasollasa
The ' also known as ''Abhilashitartha Chintamani'', is an early 12th-century Sanskrit text composed by the Kalyani Chalukya king Someshvara III, who ruled in present-day Karnataka . It is an encyclopedic work covering topics such as polity, gove ...
'' or ''Abhilashitartha Chintamani'' by king
Someshvara III
Someshvara III (; ) was a Western Chalukya king (also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas), the son and successor of Vikramaditya VI. He ascended the throne of the Western Chalukya Kingdom in 1126 CE, or 1127 CE.
Someshvara III, the third king in t ...
(1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society. This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc.
[Thapar, (2003), p393] While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance, it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time.
[Sastri (1955), p315] Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman-Kabhyudaya. The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people of
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
.
[A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 by E. Sreedharan p.328]
A Sanskrit scholar
Vijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for his ''
Mitakshara'', in the court of Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, Mitakshara is a treatise on law (commentary on ''Yajnavalkya'') based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India. An
Englishman
The English people are an ethnic group and nation native to England, who speak the English language, a West Germanic language, and share a common history and culture. The English identity is of Anglo-Saxon origin, when they were known in ...
Colebrooke later translated into
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system.
[Sastri (1955), p324] Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were ''Sangita Chudamani'', ''Sangita Samayasara'' and ''Sangita Ratnakara''.
[''Sangita Ratnakara'' being written in the court of feudatory ]Seuna
The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada River, Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the west ...
kingdom, (Kamath 2001, p115)
Architecture
![Siddesvara Temple Shrine at Haveri](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Siddesvara_Temple_Shrine_at_Haveri.JPG)
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between the
Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the
Hoysala architecture
Hoysala architecture is the building style in Hindu temple architecture developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its ...
popularised in the 13th century.
[An important period in the development of Indian art (Kamath 2001, p115)][Sastri (1955), p427] The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "
Gadag
Gadag-Betageri is a city municipal council in Gadag district in the state of Karnataka, India. It is the administrative headquarters of Gadag District. The original city of Gadag and its sister city Betageri (or ''Betgeri'') have a combined cit ...
style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River
doab
''Doab'' () is a term used in South Asia Quote: "Originally and chiefly in South Asia: (the name of) a strip or narrow tract of land between two rivers; spec. (with) the area between the rivers Ganges and Jumna in northern India." for the tract ...
region of present-day
Gadag district
Gadag is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. It was formed in 1997, when it was split from Dharwad district. As of 2011, it had a population of 1064570 (of which 35.21 percent was urban). The overall population increased by 13.14 perce ...
in Karnataka.
The dynasty's temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan, more than half of them in present-day central Karnataka.
[A fabulous revival of Chalukya temple building in central Karnataka in the 11th century (Foekema (1996), p14)][Hardy (1995), pp156-157] Apart from temples, the dynasty's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells (''Pushkarni'') which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.
[Davison-Jenkins (2001), p89]
![Ornate pillars in the Saraswati temple at Gadag](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Ornate_pillars_in_the_Saraswati_temple_at_Gadag.jpg)
The
Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi (Gadag district),
[Cousens (1926), pp79–82][Hardy (1995), p336] the
Dodda Basappa Temple
Doddabasappa Temple () is a 12th-century Western Chalukyan architectural innovation in Dambal, Karnataka state, India. Dambal is about southeast of Gadag city and southwest of Ittagi in Koppal district.Cousens (1926), p. 114 The sanctum conta ...
at
Dambal
Dambala is a village in the gadag district of the state of Karnataka, India. It was an ancient center of Buddhism and remained so as late as the 12th century. Dambal is at an elevation of .
Demographics
India census, Dambala had a population ...
(Gadag district),
[Cousens (1926), pp114–115][Hardy (1995), p326] the
Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti (
Bellary district),
[Kamath (2001), p117] the
Kallesvara Temple at Bagali (
Davangere district
Davanagere district is an administrative district of Karnataka state in India. It is the centre of Karnataka. The city of Davanagere is the district headquarters. It had a population of 1,643,494 of which 32.31% was urban as of 2011. This dist ...
),
[Hardy (1995), p323] the
Siddhesvara Temple
The Siddhesvara Temple (also spelt Siddheshvara or Siddheshwara and locally called ''Purada Siddeshwara'' ) is located in the town of Haveri in Haveri district, Karnataka state, India. It is considered an ornate example of 12th century Western ...
at
Haveri
Haveri is a city in Karnataka, India. It is the administrative headquarters of Haveri district. Haveri is famous for its cardamom garlands and Byadagi red chillies. Around 25 km away, there is a place called Bada, which is the birthplace o ...
(
Haveri district
Haveri is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. As of 2011, it had a population of 1,597,668, out of which 20.78% were urban residents. The district headquarters is Haveri.
Name of the place Haveri is derived from two Kannada words "Hav ...
),
[Cousens (1926), pp85–87][Hardy (1995), p330] the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (
Dharwad district
Dharwad is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India.The administrative headquarters of the district is the city of Dharwad, also known as Dharwar. Dharwad is located 425 km northwest of Bangalore and 421&nbs ...
),
[Hardy (1995), p321] the
Mahadeva Temple
Shiva is a Hindu deity worshipped by Shaivism, Shaivaites in India as the destroyer of ignorance spread all across the universe. As one of the three main gods in the Hindu pantheon, there are temples dedicated to his worship in India (and abroad ...
at Itagi (
Koppal district),
[Cousens (1926), pp100–102][Hardy (1995), p333] the
Kaitabheshvara Temple at Kubatur,
[Hardy (1995), p335] and the
Kedareshvara Temple at
Balligavi are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects.
[Hardy (1995), p324] The 12th-century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail. The intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture. An inscription outside the temple calls it "Emperor of Temples" (''devalaya chakravarti'') and relates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI.
[Quote:"A title it fully deserves, for it is probably the finest temple in Kanarese districts, after ]Halebidu
Halebidu (IAST: Haḷēbīḍ, literally "old capital, city, encampment" or "ruined city") is a town located in Hassan District, Karnataka, India. Historically known as Dorasamudra (also Dwarasamudra), Halebidu became the regal capital of the ...
"(Cousens 1926, p101) The Kedareswara Temple (1060) at
Balligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya-Hoysala architectural style.
[Cousens (1926), pp105–106] The Western Chalukyas built temples in
Badami
Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from CE 540 to 757. It is famous for its rock cut monumen ...
and
Aihole
Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
during their early phase of temple building activity, such as Mallikarjuna Temple, the Yellamma Temple and the
Bhutanatha group of Temples.
[Hardy (1995), p 157]
![Jain_temple_at_Lakkundi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Jain_temple_at_Lakkundi.jpg)
The ''
vimana
Vimāna are mythological flying palaces or chariots described in Hindu texts and Sanskrit epics. The "Pushpaka Vimana" of Ravana (who took it from Kubera; Rama returned it to Kubera) is the most quoted example of a vimana. Vimanas are also men ...
'' of their temples (tower over the shrine) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas.
To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the
lathe
A lathe () is a machine tool that rotates a workpiece about an axis of rotation to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, deformation, facing, and turning, with tools that are applied to the workpiece to c ...
turned (tuned) pillars and use of
Soapstone
Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock) is a talc-schist, which is a type of metamorphic rock. It is composed largely of the magnesium rich mineral talc. It is produced by dynamothermal metamorphism and metasomatism, which occur in the zo ...
(Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples. They popularised the use of decorative ''
Kirtimukha
Kirtimukha (Sanskrit: कीर्तिमुख ,', also ', a bahuvrihi compound translating to "glorious face") is the name of a swallowing fierce monster face with huge fangs, and gaping mouth, very common in the iconography of Hindu temple a ...
'' (demon faces) in their sculptures. Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi.
[Kamath (2001), pp116–118] The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was
dravidian architecture
Dravidian architecture, or the South Indian temple style, is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from South India, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century. It is seen in Hindu temples, and the most distinc ...
.
This style is sometimes called ''Karnata dravida'', one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture.
[Hardy (1995), pp6–7]
Language
The local language
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
was mostly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs. Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
.
[Pollock (2006), p332][Houben(1996), p215] More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century,
[Thousands of Kannada-language inscriptions are ascribed by Vikramaditya VI and pertain to his daily land and charitable grants (''Nityadana''),] many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India.
Inscriptions were generally either on stone (''Shilashasana'') or copper plates (''Tamarashasana''). This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (called
Lingayatism
Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as '' Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and ''Veerashaivism'' have been ...
) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas.
[Kannada enjoyed patronage from royalty, influential Jains and the ]Lingayat
Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as ''Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and '' Veerashaivism'' have been ...
movement of Virashaivas (Thapar 2003, p396) At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit. Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses. This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity.
[However by the 14th century, bilingual inscriptions lost favour and inscriptions became mostly in the local language (Thapar, 2003, pp393–95)]
In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called ''Vamshavalis'' were written to provide historical details of dynasties. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular. Some well-known works are ''Chandombudhi'', a prosody, and ''Karnataka Kadambari'', a romance, both written by
Nagavarma I
Nāgavarma I (c. 990) was a noted Jain writer and poet in the Kannada language in the late 10th century. His two important works, both of which are extant, are ''Karnātaka Kādambari'', a ''champu'' (mixed prose-verse metre) based romance n ...
, a lexicon called ''Rannakanda'' by Ranna (993), a book on medicine called ''Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka'' by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology called ''Jatakatilaka'' by Sridharacharya (1049), a writing on erotics called ''Madanakatilaka'' by Chandraraja, and an encyclopedia called ''Lokapakara'' by Chavundaraya II (1025).
[Narasimhacharya (1988), pp61–65][E.P.Rice (1921), p33]
See also
*
Balligavi
*
Chola dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
*
Kulothunga Chola I
Kulottunga I (;1025 CE - 1122 CE) also spelt Kulothunga (), was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1070 CE to 1122 CE succeeding his cousin Athirajendra Chola. He also served as the Eastern Chalukya king from 1061 CE to 1118 CE, succeeding his ...
*
Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
*
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Someshvara II, a political move he made by gaining the support of Chalukya vassals during the Chola invasion of Chalukya territory.Sen ...
Notes
References
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{{Telangana
States and territories established in the 970s
States and territories disestablished in 1189
Chalukya
The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynas ...
Former countries in South Asia
10th century in India
11th century in India
12th century in India
Dynasties of India
Empires and kingdoms of India
Medieval Karnataka
973 establishments
10th-century establishments in India
1189 disestablishments in Asia
12th-century disestablishments in India
History of Marathwada