Weimar Classicism (german: Weimarer Klassik) was a German
literary
Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to includ ...
and
cultural movement, whose practitioners established a new
humanism
Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry.
The meaning of the term "human ...
from the synthesis of ideas from
Romanticism
Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate ...
,
Classicism
Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. In its purest form, classicism is an aestheti ...
, and the
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...
. It was named after the city of
Weimar
Weimar is a city in the state (Germany), state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located in Central Germany (cultural area), Central Germany between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately southwest of Leipzig, north of Nuremberg an ...
, Germany, because the leading authors of Weimar Classicism lived there.
The ''Weimarer Klassik'' movement lasted thirty-three years, from 1772 until 1805, and involved intellectuals such as
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as tr ...
,
Johann Gottfried Herder
Johann Gottfried von Herder ( , ; 25 August 174418 December 1803) was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the Enlightenment, '' Sturm und Drang'', and Weimar Classicism.
Biography
Born in Moh ...
,
Friedrich Schiller
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (, short: ; 10 November 17599 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, and philosopher. During the last seventeen years of his life (1788–1805), Schiller developed a productive, if complicated, friends ...
, and
Christoph Martin Wieland; and then was concentrated upon Goethe and Schiller during the period 1788–1805.
Development
Background
The
German Enlightenment, called "
neo-classical", burgeoned in the synthesis of
Empiricism and
Rationalism
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".Lacey, A.R. (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy' ...
as developed by
Christian Thomasius (1655–1728) and
Christian Wolff (1679–1754). This philosophy, circulated widely in many magazines and journals, profoundly directed the subsequent expansion of
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
-speaking and
European culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these grou ...
.
The inability of this common-sense outlook convincingly to bridge "feeling" and "thought", "body" and "mind", led to
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (, , ; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aes ...
's epochal "critical" philosophy. Another, though not as abstract, approach to this problem was a governing concern with the problems of aesthetics. In his ''Aesthetica'' of 1750 (vol. II; 1758)
Alexander Baumgarten
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (; ; 17 July 1714 – 27 MayJan LekschasBaumgarten Family'' 1762) was a German philosopher. He was a brother to theologian Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten (1706–1757).
Biography
Baumgarten was born in Berlin as the ...
(1714–62) defined "aesthetics", which he coined earlier in 1735, with its current intention as the "science" of the "lower faculties" (i.e., feeling, sensation, imagination, memory, et al.), which earlier figures of the Enlightenment had neglected. (The term, however, gave way to misunderstandings due to Baumgarten's use of the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
in accordance with the German renditions, and consequently this has often led many to falsely undervalue his accomplishment.) It was no inquiry into taste—into positive or negative appeals—nor sensations as such but rather a way of knowledge. Baumgarten's emphasis on the need for such "sensuous" knowledge was a major abetment to the "pre-Romanticism" known as ''
Sturm und Drang
''Sturm und Drang'' (, ; usually translated as "storm and stress") was a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music that occurred between the late 1760s and early 1780s. Within the movement, individual subjectivity and, in particul ...
'' (1765), of which
Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as t ...
and
Schiller
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (, short: ; 10 November 17599 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, and philosopher. During the last seventeen years of his life (1788–1805), Schiller developed a productive, if complicated, friends ...
were notable participants for a time.
Cultural and historical context
Following Goethe's competition with and separation from Wieland and Herder, the movement Weimar Classicism is often described to have occurred only between Goethe's first stay in Rome (1786) and the death of Schiller (1805), his close friend and collaborator, underrating especially Wieland's influence on German intellectual and poetic life. Therefore, the Weimar Classicism could also be started with the arrival of Wieland (1772) and extended beyond Schiller's death until the death of Wieland (1813) or even of Goethe himself (1832).
In
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, Goethe aimed to rediscover himself as a writer and to become an artist, through formal training in Rome, Europe's 'school of art'. While he failed as an artist, Italy appeared to have made him a better writer.
Schiller's evolution as a writer was following a similar path to Goethe's. He had begun as a writer of wild, violent, emotion-driven plays. In the late 1780s he turned to a more classical style. In 1794, Schiller and Goethe became friends and allies in a project to establish new standards for literature and the arts in Germany.
By contrast, the contemporaneous and efflorescing literary movement of
German Romanticism was in opposition to Weimar and German Classicism, especially to Schiller. It is in this way both may be best understood, even to the degree in which Goethe continuously and stringently criticized it through much of his essays, such as "On Dilettantism", on art and literature. After Schiller's death, the continuity of these objections partly elucidates the nature of Goethe's ideas in art and how they intermingled with his scientific thinking as well, inasmuch as it gives coherence to Goethe's work. Weimar Classicism may be seen as an attempt to reconcile—in "binary synthesis"—the vivid feeling emphasized by the ''
Sturm und Drang
''Sturm und Drang'' (, ; usually translated as "storm and stress") was a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music that occurred between the late 1760s and early 1780s. Within the movement, individual subjectivity and, in particul ...
'' movement with the clear thought emphasized by the Enlightenment, thus implying Weimar Classicism is intrinsically un-
Platonic. On this Goethe remarked:
The Weimar movement was notable for its inclusion of female writers. ''Die Horen'' published works by several women, including a serially published novel, ''Agnes von Lilien'', by Schiller's sister-in-law
Caroline von Wolzogen
Caroline von Wolzogen (née von Lengefeld) (3 February 1763, Rudolstadt – 11 January 1847, Jena), was a German writer in the Weimar Classicism circle. Her best-known works are a novel, ''Agnes von Lilien'', and a biography of Friedrich Schiller ...
. Other women published by Schiller included
Sophie Mereau,
Friederike Brun,
Amalie von Imhoff,
Elisa von der Recke
Elisabeth "Elisa" Charlotte Constanzia von der Recke (née von Medem; 20 May 1754 – 13 April 1833) was a Baltic German writer and poet.
Family
Elisa von der Recke was born in Schönberg, Skaistkalne parish, Courland (present-day Skaistka ...
, and
Louise Brachmann.
Between 1786 and Schiller's death in 1805, he and Goethe worked to recruit a network of writers, philosophers, scholars, artists and even representatives of the natural sciences such as
Alexander von Humboldt
Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt (14 September 17696 May 1859) was a German polymath, geographer, naturalist, explorer, and proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the younger brother of the Prussian minister, ...
to their cause. This alliance later became known as 'Weimar Classicism', and it came to form a part of the foundation of 19th-century Germany's understanding of itself as a culture and the political
unification of Germany
The unification of Germany (, ) was the process of building the modern German nation state with federal features based on the concept of Lesser Germany (one without multinational Austria), which commenced on 18 August 1866 with adoption of ...
.
Aesthetic and philosophical principles
These are essentials used by Goethe and Schiller:
# ''Gehalt'': the inexpressible "felt-thought", or "import", which is alive in the artist and the percipient that he or she finds means to express within the aesthetic form, hence ''Gehalt'' is implicit with form. A work's ''Gehalt'' is not reducible to its ''Inhalt''.
# ''Gestalt'': the aesthetic form, in which the import of the work is stratified, that emerges from the regulation of forms (these being rhetorical, grammatical, intellectual, and so on) abstracted from the world or created by the artist, with sense relationships prevailing within the employed medium.
# ''Stoff'': Schiller and Goethe reserve this (almost solely) for the forms taken from the world or that are created. In a work of art, ''Stoff'' (designated as "''Inhalt''", or "content", when observed in this context) is to be "indifferent" ("''gleichgültig''"), that is, it should not arouse undue interest, deflecting attention from the aesthetic form. Indeed, ''Stoff'' (i.e., also the medium through which the artist creates) needs to be in such a complete state of unicity with the ''Gestalt'' of the art-symbol that it cannot be abstracted except at the cost of destroying the aesthetic relations established by the artist.
Primary authors
Goethe and Schiller
Although the vociferously unrestricted, even "organic", works that were produced, such as ''Wilhelm Meister'', ''Faust'', and ''West-östlicher Divan'', where playful and turbulent ironies abound, may perceivably lend Weimar Classicism the double, ironic title "Weimar Romanticism", it must nevertheless be understood that Goethe consistently demanded this distance via irony to be imbued within a work for precipitate aesthetic affect.
[Goethe's letter to Friedrich Zelter, 25.xii.1829. Cf. "''Spanische Romanzen, übersetzt von Beauregard Pandin''" (1823).]
Schiller was very prolific during this period, writing his plays ''Wallenstein'' (1799), ''Mary Stuart'' (1800), ''The Maid of Orleans'' (1801), ''The Bride of Messina'' (1803) and ''William Tell'' (1804).
Primary works of the period
Christoph Martin Wieland
* ''
Alceste'', (stage play, 1773, first on stage: Weimar, May 25, 1773)
* ''
Die Geschichte der Abderiten'', (novel on ancient
Abdera, Leipzig 1774–1780)
* ''Hann und Gulpenheh'', (rhymed novel, Weimar 1778)
* ''
Schach Lolo Schach may refer to:
* ''Schach'', the German term for chess
Chess is a board game for two players, called White and Black, each controlling an army of chess pieces in their color, with the objective to checkmate the opponent's king. It is ...
'', (rhymed novel, Weimar 1778)
* ''
Oberon
Oberon () is a king of the fairies in medieval and Renaissance literature. He is best known as a character in William Shakespeare's play ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', in which he is King of the Fairies and spouse of Titania, Queen of the Fair ...
'', (rhymed novel, Weimar 1780)
* ''
Dschinnistan'', (tom. I-III, Winterthur 1786–1789)
* ''
Geheime Geschichte des Philosophen Peregrinus Proteus'', (novel, Weimar 1788/89; Leipzig 1791)
* ''
Agathodämon'', (novel, Leipzig 1796–1797)
* ''
Aristipp und einige seiner Zeitgenossen'', (novel on
Aristippus
Aristippus of Cyrene, Libya, Cyrene (; grc, Ἀρίστιππος ὁ Κυρηναῖος; c. 435 – c. 356 BCE) was a Hedonism, hedonistic Ancient Greece, Greek philosopher and the founder of the Cyrenaics, Cyrenaic school of philosophy. He w ...
, tom. I-IV, Leipzig: Göschen 1800–1802)
Johann Gottfried Herder
* ''Volkslieder nebst untermischten anderen Stücken'' (1778–1779, ²1807: ''
Stimmen der Völker in Liedern'')
* ''
Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit'' (essays, tom. I-IV, 1784–1791)
* ''
Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität'', (collected essays, 1791–1797)
* ''
Terpsichore
In Greek mythology, Terpsichore (; grc-gre, Τερψιχόρη, "delight in dancing") is one of the nine Muses and goddess of dance and chorus. She lends her name to the word "terpsichorean" which means "of or relating to dance".
Appearanc ...
'', (Lübeck 1795)
* ''
Christliche Schriften'', (5 collections, Riga 1796–1799)
* ''
Metakritik zur Kritik der reinen Vernunft,'' (essay, Part I+II, Leipzig 1799)
* ''
Kalligone'', (Leipzig 1800)
Johann Wolfgang (von) Goethe
* ''
Egmont Egmont may refer to:
* Egmont Group, a media corporation founded and rooted in Copenhagen, Denmark
* Egmond family (often spelled "Egmont"), an influential Dutch family, lords of the town of Egmond
** Lamoral, Count of Egmont (1522–1568), the bes ...
'' ("Trauerspiel", begun in 1775, published 1788)
* ''
Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung'' (novel from 1776, published 1911)
* ''
Stella
Stella or STELLA may refer to:
Art, entertainment, and media Comedy
*Stella (comedy group), a comedy troupe consisting of Michael Showalter, Michael Ian Black and David Wain
Characters
*Stella (given name), including a list of characters with th ...
. Ein Schauspiel für Liebende'' (stage play, 1776)
* ''Iphigenie auf Tauris'' ("
Iphigenia in Tauris", stage play, published 1787)
* ''
Torquato Tasso
Torquato Tasso ( , also , ; 11 March 154425 April 1595) was an Italian poet of the 16th century, known for his 1591 poem ''Gerusalemme liberata'' ( Jerusalem Delivered), in which he depicts a highly imaginative version of the combats between ...
'' (stage play, 1780–, published 1790)
* ''
Römische Elegien'' (written 1788–90)
* ''
Venezianische Epigramme'' (1790)
* ''Faust. Ein Fragment'' (1790)
* ''
Theory of Colours
''Theory of Colours'' (german: Zur Farbenlehre, links=no) is a book by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe about the poet's views on the nature of colours and how these are perceived by humans. It was published in German in 1810 and in English in 1840 ...
'' 1791/92)
* ''
Der Bürgergeneral
''Der Bürgergeneral'' (English: ''The Citizen General'') is a comedy in one act by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, written and published in 1793. It satirises the French Revolution through the story of a man who poses as a revolutionary in order t ...
'' (stage play, 1793)
* ''
Reineke Fuchs'' ("Reineke Fox", hexametric epic poem, 1794)
* ''
Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten'' ("Conversations of German Refugees", 1795)
* ''Das Märchen'', ("
The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily", fairy tale, 1795)
* ''Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre'' ("
Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship", novel, 1795/96)
* ''Faust. Eine Tragödie'' ("
Faust
Faust is the protagonist of a classic German folklore, German legend based on the historical Johann Georg Faust ( 1480–1540).
The wiktionary:erudite, erudite Faust is highly successful yet dissatisfied with his life, which leads him to make a ...
" I, 1797–, first print 1808)
* ''
Novelle'' (1797– )
* ''Hermann und Dorothea'' ("
Hermann and Dorothea
''Hermann and Dorothea'' is an epic poem, an idyll, written by German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe between 1796 and 1797, and was to some extent suggested by Johann Heinrich Voss's ''Luise'', an idyll in hexameters, which was first publishe ...
", hexametric epic poem, 1798)
* ''
Die natürliche Tochter
Die, as a verb, refers to death, the cessation of life.
Die may also refer to:
Games
* Die, singular of dice, small throwable objects used for producing random numbers
Manufacturing
* Die (integrated circuit), a rectangular piece of a semicon ...
'' (stage play, 1804)
* ''Die Wahlverwandtschaften'' ("
Elective Affinities", novel, 1809)
Friedrich (von) Schiller
* ''
Don Karlos'', (stage play, 1787)
* ''
Über den Grund des Vergnügens an tragischen Gegenständen'', (essay, 1792)
* ''
Augustenburger Briefe
The Augustenburger Briefen (''Augustenburg Letters'') are a collection of letters on aesthetics written by Friedrich Schiller
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (, short: ; 10 November 17599 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, and ...
'', (essays, 1793)
* ''
Über Anmut und Würde'', (essay, 1793)
* ''
Kallias-Briefe
The ''Kallias-Briefen'' was a collection made by Schiller
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (, short: ; 10 November 17599 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, and philosopher. During the last seventeen years of his life (1788–1805 ...
'', (essays, 1793)
* ''
Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen'', ("On the Aesthetic Education of Man", essays, 1795)
* ''
Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung'', (essay, 1795)
* ''
Der Taucher
"Der Taucher" ("The Diver") is a ballad by Friedrich Schiller, written in 1797, the year of his friendly ballad competition with Goethe.
Synopsis
A king throws a golden beaker into a whirlpool and promises that the one who can recover it can a ...
'', (poem, 1797)
* ''
Die Kraniche des Ibykus'', (poem, 1797)
* ''
Ritter Toggenburg'', (poem, 1797)
* ''
Der Ring des Polykrates'', (poem, 7987)
* ''Der Geisterseher'', ("
The Ghost-seer
''The Ghost-Seer'' or ''The Apparitionist'' (full title: ''Der Geisterseher – Aus den Papieren des Grafen von O**''; literally, ''The Ghost-Seer – From the papers of the Count of O**'') is a novel by Friedrich Schiller. It first app ...
", (1789)
* ''
Die Bürgschaft'', (poem, 1798)
* ''
Wallenstein'' (trilogy of stage plays, 1799)
* ''
Das Lied von der Glocke
The "Song of the Bell" (German: "Das Lied von der Glocke", also translated as "The Lay of the Bell") is a poem that the German poet Friedrich Schiller published in 1798. It is one of the most famous poems of German literature and with 430 lines ...
'' (poem, 1799)
* ''Maria Stuart'' ("
Mary Stuart Mary Stuart or Mary Stewart may refer to:
People
*Mary Stewart, Countess of Buchan (before 1428–1465), fifth daughter of James I of Scotland, 1st Countess of Buchan
*Mary of Guelders (c. 1434–1463), queen to James II of Scotland
* Mary Stewart, ...
", stage play, 1800)
* ''
Die Jungfrau von Orleans
''The Maid of Orleans'' (german: Die Jungfrau von Orleans, links=no, ) is a tragedy by Friedrich Schiller, premiered on 11 September 1801 in Leipzig. During his lifetime, it was one of Schiller's most frequently-performed pieces.
Plot
The play ...
'' ("The Maid of Orleans", stage play, 1801)
* ''
Die Braut von Messina
''The Bride of Messina'' (german: Die Braut von Messina, ) is a tragedy by Friedrich Schiller; it premiered on 19 March 1803 in Weimar. It is one of the most controversial works by Schiller, due to his use of elements from Greek tragedies (which ...
'' ("The Bride of Messina", stage play, 1803)
* ''
Das Siegesfest
"The Victory Festival" ("Das Siegesfest") is a poem written in May 1803 by Friedrich Schiller
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (, short: ; 10 November 17599 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, and philosopher. During the last sev ...
'' (poem, 1803)
* ''Wilhelm Tell'' "(
William Tell
William Tell (german: Wilhelm Tell, ; french: Guillaume Tell; it, Guglielmo Tell; rm, Guglielm Tell) is a folk hero of Switzerland.
According to the legend, Tell was an expert mountain climber and marksman with a crossbow who assassinated Albr ...
", stage play, 1803/04)
* ''
Die Huldigung der Künste
''Die Huldigung der Künste'' (''The Homage of the Arts'') is a dramatic poem written by Friedrich Schiller. It was his last completed dramatic work and premiered on 12 November 1804 in Weimar. Its final sentence, expressing Schiller's artistic cr ...
'' (poem, 1804)
* ''
Demetrius
Demetrius is the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek male given name ''Dēmḗtrios'' (), meaning “Demetris” - "devoted to goddess Demeter".
Alternate forms include Demetrios, Dimitrios, Dimitris, Dmytro, Dimitri, Dimitrie, Dimitar, Du ...
'' (stage play, incomplete, 1805)
By Goethe and Schiller in collaboration
* ''
Die Horen'' (edited by Schiller, periodical, 1795–96)
* ''Musenalmanach'' (editorship, many contributions, 1796–97)
* ''
Xenien
''Xenien'' is a Germanization of the Greek ''Xenia'' "host gifts", a title originally applied by the Roman poet Martial (1st century AD) to a collection of poems which were to accompany his presents.
Following this precedent, Johann Wolfgang von ...
'' (poems, 1796)
* ''Almanach'' (editorship, many contributions, 1798–1800)
* ''
Propyläen
''Die Propyläen'' was a periodical begun in July 1798 by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and his friend Johann Heinrich Meyer.
Impetus
During the journal's short, three-year existence its various contributors and editors, for example, shown in essay ...
'' (periodical, 1798–1801)
''See also'':
works by Herder,
works by Goethe, and
works by Schiller.
Selected literature
Primary
# Schiller, J. C. Friedrich, ''On the Aesthetic Education of Man: In a Series of Letters'', ed. and trans. by Wilkinson, Elizabeth M. and
L. A. Willoughby Leonard Ashley Willoughby (1885–1977) was a British scholar of German literature, and recipient of the Goethe Institute's Goethe Medal.
Career
Willoughby was Professor of German at University College London from 1931 to 1950.
In 1936 together ...
, Clarendon Press, 1967.
Secondary
# Amrine, F, Zucker, F. J., and Wheeler, H. (Eds.), ''Goethe and the Sciences: A Reappraisal'', BSPS, D. Reidel, 1987,
# Bishop, Paul & R. H. Stephenson, ''Friedrich Nietzsche and Weimar Classicism'', Camden House, 2004, .
# —, "Goethe's Late Verse", in ''The Literature of German Romanticism'', ed. by Dennis F. Mahoney, Vol. 8 of The Camden House History of German Literature, Rochester, N. Y., 2004.
# Borchmeyer, Dieter, ''Weimarer Klassik: Portrait einer Epoche'', Weinheim, 1994, .
# Buschmeier, Matthias; Kauffmann, Kai: ''Einführung in die Literatur des Sturm und Drang und der Weimarer Klassik'', Darmstadt, 2010.
# Cassirer, Ernst, ''Goethe und die geschichtliche Welt'', Berlin, 1932.
# Daum, Andreas W., "Social Relations, Shared Practices, and Emotions: Alexander von Humboldt’s Excursion into Literary Classicism and the Challenges to Science around 1800", in ''Journal of Modern History'' 91 (March 2019), 1–37.
# Ellis, John, ''Schiller's Kalliasbriefe and the Study of his Aesthetic Theory'', The Hague, 1970.
# Kerry, S., ''Schiller's Writings on Aesthetics'', Manchester, 1961.
# Nisbet, H. B., ''Goethe and the Scientific Tradition'', Leeds, 1972, .
# Martin, Nicholas, ''Nietzsche and Schiller: Untimely Aesthetics'', Clarendon Press, 1996, .
#
Reemtsma, Jan Philipp, ''"Der Liebe Maskentanz": Aufsätze zum Werk Christoph Martin Wielands'', 1999, .
# Stephenson, R. H., "The Cultural Theory of Weimar Classicism in the light of Coleridge's Doctrine of Aesthetic Knowledge", in ''Goethe 2000'', ed. by Paul Bishop and R. H. Stephenson, Leeds, 2000.
# —, "Die ästhetische Gegenwärtigkeit des Vergangenen: Goethes 'Maximen und Reflexionen' über Geschichte und Gesellschaft, Erkenntnis und Erziehung", ''Goethe-Jahrbuch'', 114, 1997, 101–12; 382–84.
# —, 'Goethe's Prose Style: Making Sense of Sense', ''Publications of the English Goethe Society'', 66, 1996, 31–41.
# —, ''Goethe's Conception of Knowledge and Science'', Edinburgh, 1995, .
# Wilkinson, Elizabeth M. and L. A. Willoughby, "'The Whole Man' in Schiller's theory of Culture and Society", in ''Essays in German Language, Culture and Society'', ed. Prawer et al., London, 1969, 177–210.
# —, ''Goethe, Poet and Thinker'', London, 1972.
# Willoughby, L. A., ''The Classical Age of German Literature 1748–1805'', New York, 1966.
See also
*
Ernst Cassirer
Ernst Alfred Cassirer ( , ; July 28, 1874 – April 13, 1945) was a German philosopher. Trained within the Neo-Kantian Marburg School, he initially followed his mentor Hermann Cohen in attempting to supply an idealistic philosophy of science.
...
*
S. T. Coleridge
*
J. G. Fichte
*
Jena Romanticism
*
Johann Georg Hamann
*
Johann Gottfried Herder
Johann Gottfried von Herder ( , ; 25 August 174418 December 1803) was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the Enlightenment, '' Sturm und Drang'', and Weimar Classicism.
Biography
Born in Moh ...
*
Friedrich Hölderlin
Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin (, ; ; 20 March 1770 – 7 June 1843) was a German poet and philosopher. Described by Norbert von Hellingrath as "the most German of Germans", Hölderlin was a key figure of German Romanticism. Pa ...
*
A. v. Humboldt
*
W. v. Humboldt
*
C. G. Jung
Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, phi ...
*
C. G. Körner
*
Johann Heinrich Meyer
Johann Heinrich Meyer (16 March 1760 – 11 October 1832) was a Swiss painter, engraver and art critic. He served as the second Director of the Weimar Princely Free Drawing School. A close associate of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, he was often ref ...
*
Karl Philipp Moritz
Karl Philipp Moritz ( Hameln, 15 September 1756 – Berlin, 26 June 1793) was a German author, editor and essayist of the '' Sturm und Drang'', late Enlightenment, and classicist periods, influencing early German Romanticism as well. He led a ...
*
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; or ; 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher, prose poet, cultural critic, philologist, and composer whose work has exerted a profound influence on contemporary philosophy. He began his c ...
*
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revol ...
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F. W. J. Schelling
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Weltliteratur
World literature is used to refer to the total of the world's national literature and the circulation of works into the wider world beyond their country of origin. In the past, it primarily referred to the masterpieces of Western European lit ...
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Christoph Martin Wieland
Notes
External links
Primary sources
"On the Sublime" by Schiller
Other sources
Weimar Classicism in Literary EncyclopediaKlassik Stiftung Weimar
Goethes Allianz mit Schiller
Der späte Goethe
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ttp://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=5722&inst_id=31 English Goethe SocietyGoethe Society of North America
{{Authority control
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
German literary movements
Neoclassical movements
Age of Enlightenment
Classicism
Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. In its purest form, classicism is an aestheti ...
Classicism
Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. In its purest form, classicism is an aestheti ...
Friedrich Schiller
German literature by period
18th-century German literature
19th-century German literature