is the oldest attested name of Japan in foreign sources (names such as

Fusang Fusang () refers to various entities, most frequently a mythical tree or location east of China, described in ancient Chinese literature. In the ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'' and several contemporary texts, the term refers to a mythological ...

or Penglai are mythological or legendary, thus are not considered). The Chinese and Korean scribes regularly wrote it in reference to the inhabitants of the Wa Kingdoms in

Kyushu is the third-largest island of Japan's five main islands and the most southerly of the four largest islands ( i.e. excluding Okinawa). In the past, it has been known as , and . The historical regional name referred to Kyushu and its surroun ...

(2nd century CE) and the ancient Yamato kingdom with the

Chinese character Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the Written Chinese, writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are k ...

"submissive, distant, dwarf", until the 8th century, when the Japanese replaced it with "harmony, peace, balance". Dam yeom rip bon wang hee do, from Gugong Bowuguan China, 6th century

Dam yeom rip bon wang hee do, from Gugong Bowuguan China, 6th century

Historical references

The earliest textual references to

Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...

are in

Chinese classic texts Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confucia ...

. Within the official Chinese dynastic ''

Twenty-Four Histories The ''Twenty-Four Histories'' (), also known as the ''Orthodox Histories'' (), are the Chinese official dynastic histories covering from the earliest dynasty in 3000 BC to the Ming dynasty in the 17th century. The Han dynasty official Sima Qia ...

'', Japan is mentioned among the so-called ''

Dongyi The Dongyi or Eastern Yi () was a collective term for ancient peoples found in Chinese records. The definition of Dongyi varied across the ages, but in most cases referred to inhabitants of eastern China, then later, the Korean peninsula, and Ja ...

'' 東夷 "Eastern Barbarians". The historian Wang Zhenping summarizes Wa contacts with the Han State.

When chieftains of various Wo tribes contacted authorities at Lelang, a Chinese commandery established in northern Korea in 108 B.C. by the Western Han court, they sought to benefit themselves by initiating contact. In A.D. 57, the first Wo ambassador arrived at the capital of the Eastern Han court (25-220); the second came in 107. Wo diplomats never called on China on a regular basis. A chronology of Japan-China relations from the first to the ninth centuries reveals this irregularity in the visits of Japanese ambassadors to China. There were periods of frequent contacts as well as of lengthy intervals between contacts. This irregularity clearly indicated that, in its diplomacy with China, Japan set its own agenda and acted on self-interest to satisfy its own needs. No Wo ambassador, for example, came to China during the second century. This interval continued well past the third century. Then within merely nine years, the female Wo ruler
Himiko , also known as , was a shamaness-queen of Yamatai-koku in . Early Chinese dynastic histories chronicle tributary relations between Queen Himiko and the Cao Wei Kingdom (220–265) and record that the Yayoi period people chose her as ruler fol ...
sent four ambassadors to the Wei court (220-265) in 238, 243, 245, and 247 respectively. After the death of Himiko, diplomatic contacts with China slowed. Iyoo, the female successor to Himiko, contacted the Wei court only once. The fourth century was another quiet period in China-Wo relations except for the Wo delegation dispatched to the Western Jin court (265-316) in 306. With the arrival of a Wo ambassador at the Eastern Jin court (317-420) in 413, a new age of frequent diplomatic contacts with China began. Over the next sixty years, ten Wo ambassadors called on the Southern Song court (420-479), and a Wo delegation also visited the Southern Qi court (479-502) in 479. The sixth century saw only one Wo ambassador pay respect to the Southern Liang court (502-557) in 502. When these ambassadors arrived in China, they acquired official titles, bronze mirrors, and military banners, which their masters could use to bolster their claims to political supremacy, to build a military system, and to exert influence on southern Korea. (Wang 2005:221–222)

Wa Kingdoms

The Wa Kingdoms in

were documented in the Civil War of Wa which originated from a power struggle or political situation in the mid 2nd century CE. There were over 100 chiefdoms before the civil war."Over a hundred" could mean uncountably many. Afterward there were around 30 chiefdoms left that were ruled by shaman queen

Himiko , also known as , was a shamaness-queen of Yamatai-koku in . Early Chinese dynastic histories chronicle tributary relations between Queen Himiko and the Cao Wei Kingdom (220–265) and record that the Yayoi period people chose her as ruler fol ...

of . Himiko restored peace and gained control of the region around 180 CE.Thirty is the number of chiefdoms ruled by Himiko.

Shan Hai Jing

Possibly the earliest record of ''Wō'' 倭 "Japan" occurs in the ''

Shan Hai Jing The ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'', also known as ''Shan Hai Jing'', formerly romanized as the ''Shan-hai Ching'', is a Chinese classic text and a compilation of mythic geography and beasts. Early versions of the text may have existed sinc ...

'' 山海經 "Classic of Mountains and Seas". The textual dating of this collection of geographic and mythological legends is uncertain, but estimates range from 300 BCE to 250 CE. The '' Haineibei jing'' 海內北經 "Classic of Regions within the North Seas" chapter includes ''Wō'' 倭 "Japan" among foreign places both real, such as Korea, and legendary (''e.g.''

Penglai Mountain Penglai () is a legendary land of Chinese mythology. It is known in Japanese mythology as Hōrai. McCullough, Helen. ''Classical Japanese Prose'', p. 570. Stanford Univ. Press, 1990. . Location According to the ''Classic of Mountains and Sea ...

Kai
over Over may refer to: Places *Over, Cambridgeshire, England *Over, Cheshire, England *Over, South Gloucestershire, England * Over, Tewkesbury, near Gloucester, England ** Over Bridge *Over, Seevetal, Germany Music Albums * ''Over'' (album), by Pe ...
Land is south of Chü Yen and north of Wo. Wo belongs to Yen. ��國在鉅燕南倭北倭屬燕朝鮮在列陽東海北山南列陽屬燕Ch’ao-hsien hosŏn, Koreais east of Lieh Yang, south of Hai Pei ea northMountain. Lieh Yang belongs to Yen. (12, tr. Nakagawa 2003:49)

Nakagawa notes that ''Zhuyan'' 鉅燕 refers to the (ca. 1000–222 BCE) kingdom of

Yan (state) Yan (; Old Chinese pronunciation: ''*'') was an ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty. Its capital was Ji (later known as Yanjing and now Beijing). During the Warring States period, the court was also moved to another capital at Xiadu ...

, and that ''Wo'' ("Japan was first known by this name.") maintained a "possible tributary relationship" with Yan.

Lunheng

Wang Chong Wang Chong (; 27 – c. 97 AD), courtesy name Zhongren (仲任), was a Chinese astronomer, meteorologist, naturalist, philosopher, and writer active during the Han Dynasty. He developed a rational, secular, naturalistic and mechanistic account ...

's ca. 70–80 CE ''

Lunheng The ''Lunheng'', also known by numerous English translations, is a wide-ranging Chinese classic text by Wang Chong (27- ). First published in 80, it contains critical essays on natural science and Chinese mythology, philosophy, and literature ...

'' 論衡 "Discourses weighed in the balance" is a compendium of essays on subjects including philosophy, religion, and natural sciences. The ''Rŭzēng'' 儒増 "Exaggerations of the Literati" chapter mentions ''Wōrén'' 倭人 "Japanese people" and ''Yuèshāng'' 越裳 "A people in the southern part of Kuang-tung province, near the Annamese frontier." presenting tributes during the

Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...

. In disputing legends that ancient Zhou bronze ''ding'' tripods had magic powers to ward off evil spirits, Wang says.

During the Chou time there was universal peace. The ''Yuèshāng'' offered white pheasants to the court, the ''Japanese'' odoriferous plants. ��時天下太平，越裳獻白雉，倭人貢鬯草。Since by eating these white pheasants or odoriferous plants one cannot keep free from evil influences, why should vessels like bronze tripods have such a power? (26, tr. Forke 1907:505)

Another ''Lunheng'' chapter ''Huiguo'' 恢國 "Restoring the nation" similarly records that

Emperor Cheng of Han Emperor Cheng of Han (51 BC – 17 April 7 BC) was an emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty ruling from 33 until 7 BC. He succeeded his father Emperor Yuan of Han. Under Emperor Cheng, the Han dynasty continued its growing disintegration as the em ...

(r. 51–7 BCE) was presented tributes of Vietnamese pheasants and Japanese herbs (58, tr. Forke 1907:208).

Han Shu

The ca. 82 CE ''

Han Shu The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. I ...

'' 漢書 "Book of Han"' covers the

Former Han The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

dynasty (206 BCE – 24 CE) period. Near the conclusion of the Yan entry in the ''Dilizhi'' 地理志 "Treatise on geography" section, it records that ''Wo'' encompassed over 100 ''guó'' 國 "communities, nations, countries".

Beyond Lo-lang in the sea, there are the people of Wo. They comprise more than one hundred communities. ��浪海中有倭人分爲百餘國It is reported that they have maintained intercourse with China through tributaries and envoys. (28B, tr. Otake Takeo 小竹武夫, cited by Nakagawa 2003:50)

Emperor Wu of Han Emperor Wu of Han (156 – 29 March 87BC), formally enshrined as Emperor Wu the Filial (), born Liu Che (劉徹) and courtesy name Tong (通), was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty of ancient China, ruling from 141 to 87 BC. His reign la ...

established this Korean

Lelang Commandery The Lelang Commandery was a commandery of the Han dynasty established after it had conquered Wiman Joseon in 108 BC and lasted until Goguryeo conquered it in 313. The Lelang Commandery extended the rule of the Four Commanderies of Han as far so ...

in 108 BCE. Historian Endymion Wilkinson (2000:726) says ''Wo'' 倭 "dwarf" was used originally in the ''Hanshu'', "probably to refer to the inhabitants of Kyushu and the Korean peninsula. Thereafter to the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago."

Wei Zhi

The ca. 297 CE ''Wei Zhi'' 魏志 "Records of Wei", comprising the first of the ''

San Guo Zhi The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220� ...

'' 三國志 "Records of the Three Kingdoms", covers history of the

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

kingdom (220–265 CE). The 東夷伝 "Encounters with Eastern Barbarians" section describes the ''Wōrén'' 倭人 "Japanese" based upon detailed reports from Chinese envoys to Japan. It contains the first records of Yamatai-koku, shamaness Queen

, and other Japanese historical topics.

The people of Wa dwell in the middle of the ocean on the mountainous islands southeast of he prefectureof Tai-fang. They formerly comprised more than one hundred communities. During the Han dynasty, a envoysappeared at the Court; today, thirty of their communities maintain intercourse ith usthrough envoys and scribes. ��人在帯方東南大海之中依山爲國邑舊百餘國漢時有朝見者今使早譯所通三十國(tr. Tsunoda 1951:8)

This ''Wei Zhi'' context describes sailing from Korea to Wa and around the Japanese archipelago. For instance,

A hundred ''li'' to the south, one reaches the country of Nu ��國 the official of which is called ''shimako'', his assistant being termed ''hinumori''. Here there are more than twenty thousand households. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:0)

Tsunoda (1951:5) suggests this ancient ''Núguó'' 奴國 (lit. "slave country"), Japanese

Nakoku was a stateIn Japanese, the character 国/國, read as ''koku'' (in on'yomi) or ''kuni'' (in kun'yomi), can be translated as "country" or "province" which was located in and around modern-day Fukuoka City, on the Japanese island of Kyūshū, ...

奴国, was located near present-day Hakata in

Kyūshū is the third-largest island of Japan's five main islands and the most southerly of the four largest islands ( i.e. excluding Okinawa). In the past, it has been known as , and . The historical regional name referred to Kyushu and its surround ...

. Some 12,000 ''li'' to the south of Wa is ''Gǒunúguó'' 狗奴國 (lit. "dog slave country"), Japanese ''Kunakoku'', which is identified with the

Kumaso The were a mythical people of ancient Japan mentioned in the ''Kojiki'', believed to have lived in the south of Kyūshū until at least the Nara period. The last leader of the Kumaso, Torishi-Kaya was killed by Yamato Takeru in 397. The name of K ...

tribe that lived around Higo and

Ōsumi Province was an old province of Japan in the area that is today the eastern part of Kagoshima Prefecture. It was sometimes called . Ōsumi bordered on Hyūga and Satsuma Provinces. Osumi's ancient capital was near modern Kokubu. During the Sengoku a ...

s in southern Kyūshū. Beyond that,

Over one thousand ''li'' to the east of the Queen's land, there are more countries of the same race as the people of Wa. To the south, also there is the island of the dwarfs ��儒國where the people are three or four feet tall. This is over four thousand ''li'' distant from the Queen's land. Then there is the land of the naked men, as well of the black-teethed people. ��國黒齒國These places can be reached by boat if one travels southeast for a year. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:13)

One ''Wei Zhi'' passage (tr. Tsunoda 1951:14) records that in 238 CE the Queen of Wa sent officials with tribute to the Wei emperor

Cao Rui Cao Rui () (204 or 206 – 22 January 239), courtesy name Yuanzhong, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. His parentage is in dispute: his mother, Lady Zhen, was Yuan Xi's wife, but she later rem ...

, who reciprocated with lavish gifts including a gold

seal Seal may refer to any of the following: Common uses * Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly: ** Earless seal, or "true seal" ** Fur seal * Seal (emblem), a device to impr ...

with the official title "Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei". Haniwa1

Another passage relates Wa

tattooing A tattoo is a form of body modification made by inserting tattoo ink, dyes, and/or pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to form a design. Tattoo artists create these designs using several tattooing p ...

with legendary King

Shao Kang Shao Kang (, his surname was Sì 姒) was the sixth king of the Xia dynasty of ancient China. He was the son of Xiang. His father was killed in a battle against Han Zhuo's two sons, Han Jiao and Han Yi; Shao Kang's mother Ji managed to escape a ...

of the

Xia dynasty The Xia dynasty () is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. According to tradition, the Xia dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great, after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave the throne to him. In tradi ...

Men great and small, all tattoo their faces and decorate their bodies with designs. From olden times envoys who visited the Chinese Court called themselves "grandees" ��夫 A son of the ruler Shao-k'ang of Hsia, when he was enfeoffed as lord of K'uai-chi, cut his hair and decorated his body with designs in order to avoid the attack of serpents and dragons. The Wa, who are fond of diving into the water to get fish and shells, also decorated their bodies in order to keep away large fish and waterfowl. Later, the designs became merely ornamental. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:10)

"Grandees" translates Chinese ''dàfū'' 大夫 (lit. "great man") "senior official; statesman" (cf. modern ''dàifu'' 大夫 "physician; doctor"), which mistranslates Japanese imperial ''taifu'' 大夫 "5th-rank courtier; head of administrative department; grand tutor" (the ''Nihongi'' records that the envoy Imoko was a ''taifu''). A second Wei history, the ca. 239–265 CE ''

Weilüe The ''Weilüe'' () was a Chinese historical text written by Yu Huan between 239 and 265. Yu Huan was an official in the state of Cao Wei (220–265) during the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). Although not a formal historian, Yu Huan has been h ...

'' 魏略 "Brief account of the Wei dynasty" is no longer extant, but some sections (including descriptions of the Roman Empire) are quoted in the 429 CE ''San Guo Zhi'' commentary by Pei Songzhi 裴松之. He quotes the ''Weilüe'' that "''Wō'' people call themselves posterity of Tàibó" (倭人自謂太伯之後). Taibo was the uncle of King Wen of Zhou, who ceded the throne to his nephew and founded the ancient state of Wu (585–473 BCE). The

Records of the Grand Historian ''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...

has a section titled 吳太伯世家 "Wu Taibo's Noble Family", and his shrine is located in present-day

Wuxi Wuxi (, ) is a city in southern Jiangsu province, eastern China, by car to the northwest of downtown Shanghai, between Changzhou and Suzhou. In 2017 it had a population of 3,542,319, with 6,553,000 living in the entire prefecture-level city ar ...

. Researchers have noted cultural similarities between the ancient Wu state and Wō Japan including ritual tooth-pulling, back

child carrier Various methods of transporting children have been used in different cultures and times. These methods include baby carriages (prams in British English), infant car seats, portable bassinets (carrycots), strollers (pushchairs), slings, backpacks ...

s, and tattooing (represented with red paint on Japanese

Haniwa The are terracotta clay figures that were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries AD) of the history of Japan. ''Haniwa'' were created according to the ''wazumi'' techniq ...

statues).

Hou Han Shu

The ca. 432 CE ''

Hou Han Shu The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Late ...

'' 後漢書 "Book of Later/Eastern Han" covers the Later Han dynasty (25–220 CE) period, but was not compiled until two centuries later. The ''Wōrén'' 倭人 "Japanese" are included under the 東夷伝 "Encounters with Eastern Barbarians" section.

The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Tai-fang in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities ��人在帯方東南大海之中依山爲國邑舊百餘國 From the time of the overthrow of Chao-hsien orthern Koreaby Emperor Wu (B.C. 140-87), nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han ynastycourt by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office is hereditary. The King of Great Wa resides in the country of Yamadai ��馬台国 (tr. Tsunoda 1951:1)

Comparing the opening descriptions of Wa in the ''Wei Zhi'' and ''Hou Han Shu'' clearly reveals that the latter is derivative. Their respective accounts of the dwarf, naked, and black-teethed peoples provide another example of copying.

Leaving the queen's land and crossing the sea to the east, after a voyage of one thousand ''li'', the country of Kunu ��奴國is reached, the people of which are of the same race as that of the Wa. They are not the queen's subjects, however. Four thousand ''li'' away to the south of the queen's land, the dwarf's country ��儒國is reached; its inhabitants are three to four feet in height. After a year's voyage by ship to the southeast of the dwarf's country, one comes to the land of naked men and also to the country of black-teethed people ��國黑齒國 here our communication service ends. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:3)

This ''Hou Han Shu'' account of Japan contains some historical details not found in the ''Wei Zhi''.

In …
7 CE AD 7 was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Metellus and Nerva (or, less frequently, year 760 ''Ab urbe condita''). ...
the Wa country Nu ��奴國sent an envoy with tribute who called himself ''ta-fu'' ��夫 This country is located in the southern extremity of the Wa country. Kuang-wu bestowed on him a seal. In …
07 CE 7 (seven) is the natural number following 6 and preceding 8. It is the only prime number preceding a cube (algebra), cube. As an early prime number in the series of positive integers, the number seven has greatly symbolic associations in religion ...
during the reign of An-ti (107-125), the King of Wa presented one hundred sixty slaves, making at the same time a request for an imperial audience. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:2)

Tsunoda (1951:5) notes support for the Hakata location of Nu/Na country in the 1784 discovery at

Hakata Bay is a bay in the northwestern part of Fukuoka city, on the Japanese island of Kyūshū. It faces the Tsushima Strait, and features beaches and a port, though parts of the bay have been reclaimed in the expansion of the city of Fukuoka. The b ...

of a gold seal bearing the inscription 漢委奴國王, usually translated "Han assal?King of the Wa country Nu." Although the name of the King of Wa in AD 107 does not appear in the above translation, his name is Suishō (帥升) according to the original text.

Song Shu

The 488 CE ''

Song Shu The ''Book of Song'' (''Sòng Shū'') is a historical text of the Liu Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties of China. It covers history from 420 to 479, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories, a traditional collection of historical records. ...

'' 宋書 "Book of Song" covers the brief history of the

Liu Song dynasty Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern Dynasty (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. ...

(420–479). Under the "Eastern and Southern Barbarians" 夷蠻 section, Japan is called ''Wōguó'' 倭國, Japanese ''Wakoku'', and said to be located off

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...

. In contrast with the earlier histories that describe the Wa as a 人 "people", this Song history describes them as a 國 "country".

The country of Wa is in the midst of the great ocean, southeast of Koguryŏ. From generation to generation, he Wa peoplecarry out their duty of bringing tribute. ��國在高驪東南大海中世修貢職In … 21 the first Emperor said in a rescript: "Ts'an ��,_Emperor_Nintoku_(r._ca._313-319).html" ;"title="Emperor_Nintoku.html" ;"title="��, Emperor Nintoku">��, Emperor Nintoku (r. ca. 313-319)">Emperor_Nintoku.html" ;"title="��, Emperor Nintoku">��, Emperor Nintoku (r. ca. 313-319)of Wa sends tribute from a distance of tens of thousands of ''li''. The fact that he is loyal, though so far away, deserves appreciation. Let him, therefore, be granted rank and title." … When Ts'an died and his brother, Chen [珍, Emperor Hanzei (r. ca. 406-411)], came to the throne, the latter sent an envoy to the Court with tribute. Signing himself as King of Wa and General Who Maintains Peace in the East [安東大將軍倭王] Commanding with Battle-Ax All Military Affairs in the Six Countries of Wa, Paekche, Silla, Imna, Chin-han and Mok-han, he presented a memorial requesting that his titles be formally confirmed. An imperial edict confirmed his title of King of Wa and General Who Maintains Peace in the East. … In the twentieth year 43 Sai ��,_Emperor_Ingyō_(r._ca._412-453).html" ;"title="Emperor_Ingyō.html" ;"title="��, Emperor Ingyō">��, Emperor Ingyō (r. ca. 412-453)">Emperor_Ingyō.html" ;"title="��, Emperor Ingyō">��, Emperor Ingyō (r. ca. 412-453) King of Wa, sent an envoy with tribute and was again confirmed as King of Wa and General Who Maintains Peace. In the twenty-eighth year [451], the additional title was granted of General Who Maintains Peace in the East Commanding with Battle-Ax All Military Affairs in the Six Countries of Wa, Silla, Imna, Kala, Chin-han and Mok-han. (99, tr. Tsunoda 1951:22–23)

The ''Song Shu'' gives detailed accounts of relations with Japan, indicating that the Wa kings valued their political legitimization from the Chinese emperors.

Liang Shu

The 635 CE '' Liang Shu'' 梁書 "Book of Liang", which covers history of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the South ...

(502–557), records the Buddhist monk

Hui Shen Fusang () refers to various entities, most frequently a mythical tree or location east of China, described in ancient Chinese literature. In the ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'' and several contemporary texts, the term refers to a mythological ...

's trip to Wa and the legendary

. It refers to Japan as ''Wō'' 倭 (without "people" or "country" suffixation) under the ''Dongyi'' "Eastern Barbarians" section, and begins with the

Taibo Taibo () (circa 1150 BCE), or Wu Taibo, was the eldest son of King Tai of Zhou and the legendary founder of the State of Wu. His exact birth and death dates are unknown. Biography According to Sima Qian, Taibo was the founder of the State of ...

legend.

The Wa say of themselves that they are posterity of Tàibó. According to custom, the people are all tattooed. Their territory is over 12,000 ''li'' from
Daifang The Daifang Commandery was an administrative division established by the Chinese Han dynasty on the Korean Peninsula between 204 and 314. History Gongsun Kang, a warlord in Liaodong, separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery and es ...
. It is located approximately east of
Kuaiji Shaoxing (; ) is a prefecture-level city on the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay in northeastern Zhejiang province, China. It was formerly known as Kuaiji and Shanyin and abbreviated in Chinese as (''Yuè'') from the area's former inhabitants. ...
n_Hangzhou_Bay.html" ;"title="Hangzhou_Bay.html" ;"title="n Hangzhou Bay">n Hangzhou Bay">Hangzhou_Bay.html" ;"title="n Hangzhou Bay">n Hangzhou Bay/nowiki>, though at an extremely great distance. []

Later texts repeat this myth of Japanese descent from Taibo. The 648 CE ''Jin Shu'' 晉書 "Book of Jin" about the Jin dynasty (266–420), Jin dynasty (266–420 CE) uses a different "call" verb, ''wèi'' 謂 "say; call; name" instead of ''yún'' 云 "say; speak; call", "They call themselves the posterity of Tàibó ��謂太伯之後. The 1084 CE Chinese

universal history A universal history is a work aiming at the presentation of a history of all of mankind as a whole, coherent unit. A universal chronicle or world chronicle typically traces history from the beginning of written information about the past up to t ...

Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynast ...

'' 資治通鑑 speculates, "The present-day Japan is also said to be posterity of Tàibó of Wu; perhaps when Wu was destroyed, member ofa collateral branch of the royal family disappeared at sea and became Wo." [].

Sui Shu

The 636 CE ''Sui Shu'' 隋書 "Book of Sui" records the history of the Sui dynasty (581–618) when China was reunified. ''Wōguó''/''Wakoku'' is entered under "Eastern Barbarians", and said to be located off of

Baekje Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...

and

Silla Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms of K ...

(see

Hogong Hogong was a minister of Silla in the age of nation-building. It is recorded that he was originally from the Wa people of Japan, though his family name or clan name was unknown to the compiler of the Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms. � ...

), two of the

Three Kingdoms of Korea Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...

Wa-kuo is situated in the middle of the great ocean southeast of Paekche and Silla, three thousand ''li'' away by water and land. The people dwell on mountainous islands. ��國在百濟新羅東南水陸三千里於大海之中依山島而居During the Wei dynasty, over thirty countries f Wa-kuo each of which boasted a king, held intercourse with China. These barbarians do not know how to measure distance by ''li'' and estimate it by days. Their domain is five months' journey from east to west, and three months' from north to south; and the sea lies on all sides. The land is high in the east and low in the west. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:28)

In 607 CE, the ''Sui Shu'' records that "King Tarishihoko" (a mistake for

Empress Suiko (554 – 15 April 628) was the 33rd monarch of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 推古天皇 (33)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession. Suiko reigned from 593 until her death in 628. In the history of Japa ...

) sent an envoy, Buddhist monks, and tribute to Emperor Yang. Her official message is quoted using the word ''Tiānzǐ'' 天子 "Son of

Heaven Heaven or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the belie ...

; Chinese Emperor".

"The Son of Heaven in the land where the sun rises addresses a letter to the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun sets. We hope you are in good health." When the Emperor saw this letter, he was displeased and told the chief official of foreign affairs that this letter from the barbarians was discourteous, and that such a letter should not again be brought to his attention. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:32)

In 608, the Emperor dispatched Pei Ching as envoy to Wa, and he returned with a Japanese delegation. The Japanese '' Nihongi'' (22, tr. Aston 1972 2:136–9) also records these imperial envoys of 607 and 608, but with a differing Sino-Japanese historical perspective. It records more details, such as naming the envoy Imoko Wono no Omi and translator Kuratsukuri no Fukuri, but not the offensive Chinese translation. According to the ''Nihongi'', when Imoko returned from China, he apologized to Suiko for losing Yang's letter because Korean men "searched me and took it from me." When the Empress received Pei, he presented a proclamation (tr. Aston 1972 2:137–8) contrasting Chinese ''Huángdì'' 皇帝 "Emperor" with ''Wōwáng'' 倭王 "Wa King", "The Emperor ��帝greets the Sovereign of Wa ��王" According to the ''Nihongi'', Suiko gave Pei a different version of the imperial letter, contrasting Japanese ''Tennō'' 天皇 "Japanese Emperor" and ''Kōtei'' 皇帝 "Emperor" (Chinese ''tiānhuáng'' and ''huángdì'') instead of using "Son of Heaven".

The Emperor ��皇of the East respectfully addresses the Emperor ��帝of the West. Your Envoy, P'ei Shih-ch'ing, Official Entertainer of the Department of foreign receptions, and his suite, having arrived here, my long-harbored cares were dissolved. This last month of autumn is somewhat chilly. How is Your Majesty? We trust well. We are in our usual health. (tr. Aston 1972 2:139)

Aston quotes the 797 CE '' Shoku Nihongi'' history that this 607 Japanese mission to China first objected to writing ''Wa'' with the Chinese character 倭.

"Wono no Imoko, the Envoy who visited China, (proposed to) alter this term into Nippon, but the Sui Emperor ignored his reasons and would not allow it. The term Nippon was first used in the period … 618-626." Another Chinese authority gives 670 as the date when Nippon began to be officially used in China. (1972 2:137–8)

Tang Shu

The custom of writing "Japan" as ''Wa'' 倭 ended during the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

(618–907 CE). Japanese scribes coined the name ''Nihon'' or ''Nippon'' 日本 circa 608–645 and replaced ''Wa'' 倭 with a more flattering ''Wa'' 和 "harmony; peace" around 756–757 CE (Carr 1992:6–7). The linguistic change is recorded in two official Tang histories. The 945 CE '' Tang shu'' "Book of Tang" 唐書 (199A) has the oldest Chinese reference to ''Rìběn'' 日本. The "Eastern Barbarian" section lists both ''Wakoku'' 倭国 and ''Nipponkoku'' 日本国, giving three explanations: Nippon is an alternate name for Wa, or the Japanese disliked Wakoku because it was "inelegant; coarse" 不雅, or Nippon was once a small part of the old Wakoku. The 1050 CE '' Xin Tang Shu'' 新唐書 "New Book of Tang", which has a ''Riben'' 日本 heading for Japan under the "Eastern Barbarians", gives more details.

Japan in former times was called Wa-nu. It is 14,000 ''li'' distant from our capital, situated to the southeast of Silla in the middle of the ocean. It is five months' journey to cross Japan from east to west, and a three-month journey from south to north. ��本古倭奴也去京師萬四千里直新羅東南在海中島而居東西五月行南北三月行(145, tr. Tsunoda 1951:38)

Regarding the change in autonyms, the ''Xin Tang Shu'' says.

In … 670, an embassy came to the Court
rom Japan Rom, or ROM may refer to: Biomechanics and medicine * Risk of mortality, a medical classification to estimate the likelihood of death for a patient * Rupture of membranes, a term used during pregnancy to describe a rupture of the amniotic sac * R ...
to offer congratulations on the conquest of Koguryŏ. Around this time, the Japanese who had studied Chinese came to dislike the name Wa and changed it to Nippon. According to the words of the (Japanese) envoy himself, that name was chosen because the country was so close to where the sun rises. ��稍習夏音惡倭名更號日本使者自言國近日所出以為名Some say, (on the other hand), that Japan was a small country which had been subjugated by the Wa, and that the latter took over its name. As this envoy was not truthful, doubt still remains. ��雲日本乃小國為倭所並故冒其號使者不以情故疑焉
he envoy He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...
was, besides, boastful, and he said that the domains of his country were many thousands of square ''li'' and extended to the ocean on the south and on the west. In the northeast, he said, the country was bordered by mountain ranges beyond which lay the land of the hairy men. (145, tr. Tsunoda 1951:40)

Subsequent Chinese histories refer to Japan as ''Rìběn'' 日本 and only mention ''Wō'' 倭 as an old name.

Gwanggaeto Stele

The earliest Korean reference to Japanese ''Wa'' (''Wae'' in Korean) is the 414 CE

Gwanggaeto Stele The Gwanggaeto Stele is a memorial stele for the tomb of Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo, erected in 414 by his son Jangsu. This monument to Gwanggaeto the Great is the largest engraved stele in the world. It stands near the tomb of Gwanggaeto ...

that was erected to honor King Gwanggaeto the Great of

(r. 391–413 CE). This memorial

stele A stele ( ),Anglicized plural steles ( ); Greek plural stelai ( ), from Greek , ''stēlē''. The Greek plural is written , ''stēlai'', but this is only rarely encountered in English. or occasionally stela (plural ''stelas'' or ''stelæ''), whe ...

, which has the oldest usage of '' Wakō'' (倭寇, "Japanese pirates", ''Waegu'' in Korean), records Wa as a military ally of

in their battles with Goguryeo and

. Some scholars interpret these references to mean not only "Japanese" but also " Gaya peoples" in the southern

Korean Peninsula Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

. For instance, Lee suggests,

If Kokuryo could not destroy Paekche itself, it wished for someone else to do so. Thus, in another sense, the inscription may have been wishful thinking. At any rate, Wae denoted both the southern Koreans and people who lived on the southwest Japanese islands, the same Kaya people who had ruled both regions in ancient times. Wae did not denote Japan alone, as was the case later. (1997:34)

"It is generally thought that these ''Wae'' were from the archipelago," write Lewis and Sesay (2002:104), "but we as yet have no conclusive evidence concerning their origins."

The word ''Wa''

Etymology

Although the etymological origins of ''Wa'' remain uncertain, Chinese historical texts recorded an ancient people residing in the Japanese archipelago (perhaps

), named something like *''ɁWâ'', transcribed with Chinese character 倭, pronounced *''ʔuɑi'' < *''ʔwɑi'' in

Eastern Han Chinese Eastern Han Chinese or Later Han Chinese is the stage of the Chinese language revealed by poetry and glosses from the Eastern Han period (first two centuries AD). It is considered an intermediate stage between Old Chinese and the Middle Chinese ...

.Bentley, John
“The Search for the Language of Yamatai”
in ''Japanese Language and Literature'' (42.1), p. 10 of pp. 1-43. In modern Chinese dictionaries, Carr (1992:9–10) surveys prevalent proposals for ''Was etymology ranging from feasible (transcribing Japanese first-person pronouns ''waga'' 我が "my; our" and ''ware'' 我 "I; oneself; thou") to shameful (writing Japanese ''Wa'' as 倭 implying "dwarf barbarians"), and summarizes interpretations for *''ʼWâ'' "Japanese" into variations on two etymologies: "behaviorally 'submissive' or physically 'short' ". The first "submissive; obedient" explanation began with the (121 CE) ''

Shuowen Jiezi ''Shuowen Jiezi'' () is an ancient Chinese dictionary from the Han dynasty. Although not the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary (the ''Erya'' predates it), it was the first to analyze the structure of the characters and to give t ...

'' dictionary. It defines 倭 as ''shùnmào'' 順皃 "obedient/submissive",説文解字
人部: 倭：順皃。从人委聲。《詩》曰：「周道倭遟。」 graphically explains the "person; human' radical with a ''wěi'' 委 "bent" phonetic, and quotes the above ''Shi Jing'' poem. According to the (1716)

Kangxi Dictionary The ''Kangxi Dictionary'' ( (Compendium of standard characters from the Kangxi period), published in 1716, was the most authoritative dictionary of Chinese characters from the 18th century through the early 20th. The Kangxi Emperor of the Qing ...

(倭又人名魯宣公名倭), 倭 was the name of King Tuyen (魯宣公) of Lu (Chinese: 魯國; pinyin: Lǔ Guó, circa 1042–249 BC). "Conceivably, when Chinese first met Japanese," Carr (1992:9) suggests "they transcribed ''Wa'' as *''ʼWâ'' 'bent back' signifying 'compliant' bowing/obeisance. Bowing is noted in early historical references to Japan." Examples include "Respect is shown by squatting" (''Hou Han Shu'', tr. Tsunoda 1951:2), and "they either squat or kneel, with both hands on the ground. This is the way they show respect." (''Wei Zhi'', tr. Tsunoda 1951:13). Koji Nakayama (linked below) interprets ''wēi'' 逶 "winding" as "very far away" and euphemistically translates ''Wō'' 倭 as "separated from the continent." The second etymology of ''wō'' 倭 meaning "dwarf; short person" has possible cognates in ''ǎi'' 矮 "short (of stature); midget, dwarf; low", ''wō'' 踒 "strain; sprain; bent legs", and ''wò'' 臥 "lie down; crouch; sit (animals and birds)". Early Chinese dynastic histories refer to a ''Zhūrúguó'' 侏儒國 "pygmy/dwarf country" located south of Japan, associated with possibly

Okinawa Island is the largest of the Okinawa Islands and the Ryukyu (''Nansei'') Islands of Japan in the Kyushu region. It is the smallest and least populated of the five main islands of Japan. The island is approximately long, an average wide, and has an ...

or the

Ryukyu Islands The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan: the Ōsumi, Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (further divided into the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands), with Yonaguni ...

. Carr cites the historical precedence of construing ''Wa'' as "submissive people" and the "Country of Dwarfs" legend as evidence that the "little people" etymology was a secondary development. Since early Chinese information about Wo/Wa peoples was based largely on hearsay, Wang Zhenping (2005:9) says, "Little is certain about the Wo except they were obedient and complaisant." The Japanese

endonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...

''Wa'' 倭 "Japan" derives from the Chinese

exonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...

''Wō'' 倭 "Japan, Japanese", a

graphic pejorative Some historical Chinese characters for non-Chinese peoples were graphically pejorative ethnic slurs, where the racial insult derived not from the Chinese word but from the character used to write it. For instance, written Chinese first transcribed ...

Chinese character that had some offensive connotation, possibly "submissive, docile, obedient", "bowing; bent over", or "short person; dwarf" in modern times.

倭 and 和 characters

The Chinese character 倭 combines the 人 or 亻 "human, person" radical and a ''wěi'' 委 "bend"

phonetic Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds, or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians. ...

. This ''wěi'' phonetic element depicts ''hé'' 禾 "grain" over ''nǚ''

女 Radical 38 or radical woman () meaning "woman" or "female" is one of the 31 Kangxi radicals (214 radicals total) composed of three strokes. In the ''Kangxi Dictionary'', there are 681 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this radical. ...

"woman", which

Bernhard Karlgren Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren (; 15 October 1889 – 20 October 1978) was a Swedish sinologist and linguist who pioneered the study of Chinese historical phonology using modern comparative methods. In the early 20th century, Karlgren conducte ...

(1923:368) semantically analyzes as: "bend down, bent, tortuous, crooked; fall down, throw down, throw away, send away, reject; send out, delegate – to bend like a 女 woman working with the 禾 grain." The oldest written forms of 倭 are in

Seal script Seal script, also sigillary script () is an ancient style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of the Zhou dynasty bronze script. The Qin variant of seal ...

, and it has not been identified in

Bronzeware script Chinese bronze inscriptions, also commonly referred to as bronze script or bronzeware script, are writing in a variety of Chinese scripts on ritual bronzes such as ''zhōng'' bells and '' dǐng'' tripodal cauldrons from the Shang dynasty (2nd mi ...

Oracle bone script Oracle bone script () is an ancient form of Chinese characters that were engraved on oracle bonesanimal bones or Turtle shell#Plastron, turtle plastrons used in pyromancy, pyromantic divination. Oracle bone script was used in the late 2nd millen ...

. Most characters written with this ''wěi'' 委 phonetic are pronounced ''wei'' in

Standard Chinese Standard Chinese ()—in linguistics Standard Northern Mandarin or Standard Beijing Mandarin, in common speech simply Mandarin, better qualified as Standard Mandarin, Modern Standard Mandarin or Standard Mandarin Chinese—is a modern Standar ...

: *''wèi'' 魏 ( "ghost" radical) "the

state of Wei Wei (; ; Old Chinese: *') was one of the seven major states during the Warring States period of ancient China. It was created from the three-way Partition of Jin, together with Han and Zhao. Its territory lay between the states of Qin and ...

" *''wēi'' 逶 ( "motion" radical) "serpentine; winding, curving" n ''wēiyí'' 逶迤 "winding (road, river)"*''wěi'' 萎 ( "plant" radical) "wilt; wither; atrophy; tire, grow weary; (metaphorically) decline, fade" *''wěi'' 痿 ( "sickness" radical) "paralysis; impotence" *''wěi'' 諉 ( "speech" radical) "shirk; shift blame (onto others)" *''wèi'' 餧 ( "food" radical) "feed (animals)" The unusual ''Wō'' 倭 "Japan" pronunciation of the ''wěi'' 委 phonetic element is also present in: *''wō'' 踒 ( "foot" radical) "strain; sprain (sinew or muscle)" *''wǒ'' 婑 ( "woman" radical) "beautiful" n ''wǒtuǒ'' 婑媠 "beautiful; pretty"(In this word's case, the phonemic segments are identical, but the tonemes differ.) A third pronunciation is found in the reading of the following character: *''ǎi'' 矮 ( "arrow" radical) "dwarf, short of stature; low; inferior" Wa kanji

Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from CE 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for a five-year period (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the cap ...

Japanese scholars believed that Chinese character for ''Wō'' 倭 "Japan", which they used to write "Wa" or "Yamato", was graphically pejorative in denoting 委 "bent down" 亻 "people". Around 757 CE, Japan officially changed its endonym from ''Wa'' 倭 to ''Wa'' 和 "harmony; peace; sum; total". This replacement Chinese character ''hé'' 和 combines a ''hé'' 禾 "grain" phonetic (also seen in 倭) and the "mouth" radical 口. Carr explains:

Graphic replacement of the 倭 "dwarf Japanese" Chinese logograph became inevitable. Not long after the Japanese began using 倭 to write ''Wa'' ∼ ''Yamato'' 'Japan', they realized its 'dwarf; bent back' connotation. In a sense, they had been tricked by Chinese logography; the only written name for 'Japan' was deprecating. The chosen replacement ''wa'' 和 'harmony; peace' had the same Japanese ''wa'' pronunciation as 倭 'dwarf', and - most importantly - it was semantically flattering. The notion that Japanese culture is based upon ''wa'' 和 'harmony' has become an article of faith among Japanese and Japanologists. (1992:6)

In current Japanese usage, ''Wa'' 倭 "old name for Japan" is a

variant Chinese character Variant Chinese characters (; Kanji: ; Hepburn: ''itaiji''; ; Revised Romanization: ''icheja'') are Chinese characters that are homophones and synonyms. Most variants are allographs in most circumstances, such as casual handwriting. Some contexts ...

for ''Wa'' 和 "Japan", excepting a few historical terms like the

Five kings of Wa The were kings of ancient Japan who sent envoys to China during the 5th century to strengthen the legitimacy of their claims to power by gaining the recognition of the Chinese emperor. Details about them are unknown. According to written records in ...

, '' wakō'' (Chinese ''Wōkòu'' 倭寇 "Japanese pirates"), and ''

Wamyō Ruijushō The is a 938 CE Japanese dictionary of Chinese characters. The Heian period scholar Minamoto no Shitagō (源順, 911–983 CE) began compilation in 934, at the request of Emperor Daigo's daughter. This ''Wamyō ruijushō'' title is abbreviate ...

'' dictionary. In marked contrast, ''Wa'' 和 is a common adjective in Sino-Japanese compounds like ''Washoku'' 和食 "

Japanese cuisine Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have developed through centuries of political, economic, and social changes. The traditional cuisine of Japan (Japanese: ) is based on rice with miso soup and other ...

", ''Wafuku'' 和服 "

Japanese clothing There are typically two types of clothing worn in Japan: traditional clothing known as , including the national dress of Japan, the kimono, and , which encompasses all else not recognised as either national dress or the dress of another country. ...

", ''

Washitsu A , meaning "Japanese-style room(s)", and frequently called a "tatami room" in English, is a Japanese room with traditional tatami flooring. also usually have sliding doors (), rather than hinged doors between rooms. They may have and, if the ...

'' 和室 "Japanese-style room", ''

Waka Waka may refer to: Culture and language * Waka (canoe), a Polynesian word for canoe; especially, canoes of the Māori of New Zealand ** Waka ama, a Polynesian outrigger canoe ** Waka hourua, a Polynesian ocean-going canoe ** Waka taua, a Māori w ...

'' 和歌 "Japanese-style poetry", ''

Washi is traditional Japanese paper. The term is used to describe paper that uses local fiber, processed by hand and made in the traditional manner. ''Washi'' is made using fibers from the inner bark of the gampi tree, the mitsumata shrub (''E ...

'' 和紙 "traditional Japanese paper", ''

Wagyu Wagyu ( ja, 和牛, Hepburn: ''wagyū'', ) is the collective name for the four principal Japanese breeds of beef cattle. All wagyū cattle derive from cross-breeding in the early twentieth century of native Japanese cattle with imported sto ...

'' 和牛 "Japanese cattle".

Pronunciations

In Chinese, the character 倭 can be pronounced ''wēi'' "winding", ''wǒ'' "an ancient hairstyle", or ''Wō'' "Japan". The first two pronunciations are restricted to

Classical Chinese Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning "literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning "literar ...

bisyllabic words. ''Wēi'' 倭 occurs in ''wēichí'' 倭遲 "winding; sinuous; circuitous; meandering", which has numerous variants including ''wēiyí'' 逶迤 and 委蛇. The oldest recorded usage of 倭 is the ''

Shi Jing The ''Classic of Poetry'', also ''Shijing'' or ''Shih-ching'', translated variously as the ''Book of Songs'', ''Book of Odes'', or simply known as the ''Odes'' or ''Poetry'' (; ''Shī''), is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, co ...

'' (162) description of a ''wēichí'' 倭遲 "winding; serpentine; tortuous" road; compare (18) using ''wēituó'' 委佗 "compliant; bending, pliable; graceful". ''Wǒ'' 倭 occurs in ''wǒduòjì '' 倭墮髻 "a woman's hairstyle with a bun, popular during the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

". The third pronunciation ''Wō'' 倭 "Japan; Japanese" is more productive than the first two, as evident in Chinese names for "Japanese" things (e.g., ''Wōkòu'' 倭寇 "Japanese pirates" above) or "dwarf; pygmy" animals. *''wōqī'' 倭漆 "

Japanese lacquerware is a Japanese craft with a wide range of fine and decorative arts, as lacquer has been used in '' urushi-e'', prints, and on a wide variety of objects from Buddha statues to ''bento'' boxes for food. The characteristic of Japanese lacquerwar ...

" *'' wōdāo'' 倭刀 "

Japanese sword A is one of several types of traditionally made swords from Japan. Bronze swords were made as early as the Yayoi period (1000 BC – 300 AD), though most people generally refer to the curved blades made from the Heian period (794 – 1185) to ...

" *''wōguā'' 倭瓜 (lit. "Japanese melon") "pumpkin; squash" *''wōhémǎ'' 倭河馬 "

pygmy hippopotamus The pygmy hippopotamus or pygmy hippo (''Choeropsis liberiensis'') is a small hippopotamid which is native to the forests and swamps of West Africa, primarily in Liberia, with small populations in Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Ivory Coast. It has ...

" *''wōzhū'' 倭豬 "

pygmy hog The pygmy hog (''Porcula salvania'') is the rarest species of pig in the world today, and is the only species in the genus ''Porcula''. It is also the smallest species of pig in the world, with its piglets being small enough to fit in one's pock ...

" *''wōhúhóu'' 倭狐猴 "

dwarf lemur The dwarf lemurs are the lemurs of the genus ''Cheirogaleus''. All of the species in this genus, like all other lemurs, are native to Madagascar. Description Measuring 19–27 cm in body length with a tail about 16–17 cm, they are ...

" *''wōheixingxing'' 倭黑猩猩 " pygmy chimpanzee" Reconstructed pronunciations of ''wō'' 倭 in

Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...

(ca. 6th-10th centuries CE) include ''ʼuâ'' (Bernhard Karlgren), ''ʼua'' (Zhou Fagao), and ''ʼwa'' (Edwin G. Pulleyblank). Reconstructions in

Old Chinese Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese language, Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones ...

(ca. 6th-3rd centuries BCE) include *''ʼwâ'' (Karlgren), *''ʼwər'' (Dong Tonghe), and *''ʼwə^r'' (Zhou). In Japanese, the Chinese character 倭 has Sinitic ''

on'yomi are the logographic Chinese characters taken from the Chinese script and used in the writing of Japanese. They were made a major part of the Japanese writing system during the time of Old Japanese and are still used, along with the subsequ ...

'' pronunciations of ''wa'' or ''ka'' from Chinese ''wō'' "Japan" and ''wǒ'' "an ancient hairstyle", or ''wi'' or ''i'' from ''wēi'' "winding; obedient", and native ''

kun'yomi are the logographic Chinese characters taken from the Chinese script and used in the writing of Japanese. They were made a major part of the Japanese writing system during the time of Old Japanese and are still used, along with the subsequen ...

'' pronunciations of ''yamato'' "Japan" or ''shitagau'' "obey, obedient". Chinese ''wō'' 倭 "an old name for Japan" is a

loanword A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because th ...

in other

East Asian languages The East Asian languages are a language family (alternatively ''macrofamily'' or ''superphylum'') proposed by Stanley Starosta in 2001. The proposal has since been adopted by George van Driem. Classifications Early proposals Early proposals of s ...

including

Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...

왜 ''wae'' or ''wa'',

Cantonese Cantonese ( zh, t=廣東話, s=广东话, first=t, cy=Gwóngdūng wá) is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as Canton) and its surrounding are ...

''wai1'' or ''wo1'', and

Taiwanese Hokkien Taiwanese Hokkien () (; Tâi-lô: ''Tâi-uân-uē''), also known as Taigi/Taigu (; Pe̍h-ōe-jī/Tâi-lô: ''Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú''), Taiwanese, Taiwanese Minnan, Hoklo and Holo, is a variety of the Hokkien language spoken natively by about 70% ...

''e2''.

Lexicography

In modern dictionaries, an article by Michael Carr (1992:1) "compares how Oriental and Occidental lexicographers have treated the fact that Japan's first written name was a Chinese ''Wō'' < *''ʼWâ'' 倭 'short/submissive people' insult." It evaluates 92 dictionary definitions of Chinese ''Wō'' 倭 to illustrate lexicographical problems with defining ethnically offensive words. In modern dictionaries, this corpus of monolingual and bilingual Chinese dictionaries includes 29 Chinese-Chinese, 17 Chinese-English, 13 Chinese to other Western Languages, and 33 Chinese-Japanese dictionaries. To analyze how Chinese dictionaries deal with the belittling origins of ''Wō'', Carr divides definitions into four types, abbreviated with

Greek alphabet The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BCE. It is derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the earliest known alphabetic script to have distinct letters for vowels as we ...

letters Alpha through Delta. *Α = "dwarf; Japanese" *Β = "compliant; Japanese" *Γ = "''derogatory'' Japanese" *Δ = "Japanese" For example, Alpha (A) type includes both overt definitions like "The land of dwarfs; Japan" (''Liushi Han-Ying cidian'' 劉氏漢英辭典 iu's Chinese-English Dictionary1978) and more sophisticated semantic distinctions like "(1) A dwarf. (2) Formerly, used to refer to Japan" (''

Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage ''Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage'', compiled by the linguist and author Lin Yutang, contains over 8,100 character head entries and 110,000 words and phrases, including many neologisms. Lin's dictionary made two lexicograp ...

'' 1972). Beta (B) "compliant; Japanese" is illustrated by "''demütig'' umble; submissive; meek ''gehorchen'' bey; respond (''Praktisches zeichenlexikon chinesisch-deutsch-japanisch'' Practical Chinese-German-Japanese Character Dictionary1983). Gamma (Γ) "type definitions such as "''depreciatingly'' Japanese" (e.g., ''A Beginner's Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Language (Gwoyeu)'' 1964) include usage labels such as "derogatory," "disparaging," "offensive," or "contemptuous". Some Γ notations are restricted to subentries like "''Wōnú'' 倭奴 (in modern usage, derogatively) the Japs" (''Zuixin shiyong Han-Ying cidian'' 最新實用和英辭典 New Practical Chinese-English Dictionary1971). Delta (Δ) "Japanese" is the least informative type of gloss; for instance, "an old name for Japan" (''Xin Han-Ying cidian'' 新漢英詞典 New Chinese-English Dictionary1979). Carr evaluates these four typologies for defining the Chinese 倭 "bent people" graphic pejoration.

From a theoretical standpoint, A "dwarf" or B "submissive" type definitions are preferable for providing accurate etymological information, even though it may be deemed offensive. It is no transgression for an abridged Chinese dictionary to give a short Δ "Japan" definition, but adding "an old name for" or "archaic" takes no more space than adding a Γ "derogatory" note. A Δ definition avoids offending the Japanese, but misleads the dictionary user in the same way as the ''OED2'' defining ''wetback'' and ''white trash'' without usage labels. (1992:12).

The table below (Carr 1992:31, "Table 8. Overall Comparison of Definitions") summarizes how Chinese dictionaries define ''Wō'' 倭. Today, half of the Western language dictionaries note that Chinese ''Wō'' 倭 "Japanese" means "little person; dwarf", while most Chinese-Chinese definitions overlook the graphic slur with Δ type "ancient name for Japan" definitions. This demeaning A "dwarf" description is found more often in Occidental language dictionaries than in Oriental ones. The historically more accurate, and ethnically less insulting, "subservient; compliant" B type is limited to Chinese-Japanese and Chinese-German dictionaries. The Γ type "''derogatory''" notation occurs most often among Japanese and European language dictionaries. The least edifying Δ "(old name for) Japan" type definitions are found twice more often in Chinese-Chinese than in Chinese-Japanese dictionaries, and three times more than in Western ones. Even the modern-day

Unicode Unicode, formally The Unicode Standard,The formal version reference is is an information technology Technical standard, standard for the consistent character encoding, encoding, representation, and handling of Character (computing), text expre ...

universal character standard reflects inherent lexicographic problems with this ancient Chinese ''Wō'' 倭 "Japan" affront. The Unihan (Unified

CJK characters In internationalization, CJK characters is a collective term for the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean languages, all of which include Chinese characters and derivatives in their writing systems, sometimes paired with other scripts. Collectively, the ...

) segment of Unicode largely draws definitions from two online dictionary projects, the Chinese

CEDICT The CEDICT project was started by Paul Denisowski in 1997 and is maintained by a team on mdbg.net under the name CC-CEDICT, with the aim to provide a complete Chinese to English dictionary with pronunciation in pinyin for the Chinese characters. ...

and Japanese

EDICT An edict is a decree or announcement of a law, often associated with monarchism, but it can be under any official authority. Synonyms include "dictum" and "pronouncement". ''Edict'' derives from the Latin edictum. Notable edicts * Telepinu Pro ...

. The former lists Chinese ''wo1'' 倭 "Japanese; dwarf", ''wokou4'' 倭寇 "(in ancient usage) the dwarf-pirates; the Japs", and ''wonu2'' 倭奴 "(used in ancient times) the Japanese; (in modern usage, derogatively) the Japs". The latter lists Japanese ''yamato'' 倭 "ancient Japan", '' wajin'' 倭人 "(an old word for) a Japanese", and ''wakou'' 倭寇 "Japanese pirates."

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

* Aston, William G. 1924. ''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697.'' Charles E. Tuttle reprint 1972. * * Carr, Michael. 1992. "Wa 倭 Wa 和 Lexicography," ''International Journal of Lexicography'' 5.1:1-30. * Forke, Alfred, tr. 1907.
Lun-hêng, Part 1, Philosophical Essays of Wang Ch'ung
'. Otto Harrassowitz. * Karlgren, Bernhard. 1923. ''Analytic Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese''. Dover Reprint 1974. * * Lee, Kenneth B. 1997
''Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix''
Greenwood Publishing Group. OCLC 35637112. * Lewis, James B. and Amadu Sesay. 2002
''Korea and Globalization: Politics, Economics and Culture''
Routledge. OCLC 46908525 50074837. * * Nakagawa Masako. 2003
The ''Shan-hai ching'' and ''Wo'': A Japanese Connection
''Sino-Japanese Studies'' 15:45-55. * Tsunoda Ryusaku, tr. 1951.
Japan in the Chinese dynastic histories: Later Han through Ming dynasties
'. Goodrich, Carrington C., ed. South Pasadena: P. D. and Ione Perkins. * Wang Zhenping. 2005. ''Ambassadors from the Islands of Immortals: China-Japan Relations in the Han-Tang Period''. University of Hawai'i Press. * Wilkinson, Endymion. 2000. ''Chinese History: a manual'', revised and enlarged ed. Harvard University Asia Center.

External links

Unihan data for U+502D
Unihan Database entry for 倭

Koji Nakayama *
The Relatedness between the Origin of Japanese and Korean Ethnicity
Jaehoon Lee

Wesley Injerd

John A. Tucker

Jiang Yike *

Chinese text and Japanese translation of the ''Wei Zhi'' 魏志 account of ''Wa'' *

Chinese text and Japanese translations of Chinese historical accounts of ''Wa'' *

Accounts of ''Wa'' from 15 Chinese histories {{Portal, Ancient Japan Wajinden Names of Japan Ancient Japan Former countries in Japanese history Historical Chinese exonyms Chinese characters