Vitruvius (; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled ''
De architectura''. He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attributes: , , and ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"). These principles were later widely adopted in
Roman architecture
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered on ...
. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
drawing of the ''
Vitruvian Man'' by
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on ...
.
Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description
[De Arch. Book 1, preface. section 2.] he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of ''doctores ballistarum'' (artillery experts) and ''libratores'' who actually operated the machines. As an
army engineer
Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics b ...
he specialized in the construction of ''
ballista'' and ''
scorpio''
artillery
Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during si ...
war machines
War is an intense armed conflict between State (polity), states, governments, Society, societies, or paramilitary groups such as Mercenary, mercenaries, Insurgency, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violenc ...
for
siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or a well-prepared assault. This derives from la, sedere, lit=to sit. Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characteriz ...
s. It is possible that Vitruvius served with
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
's chief engineer
Lucius Cornelius Balbus.
Vitruvius' ''De architectura'' was widely copied and survives in many dozens of manuscripts throughout the Middle Ages,
though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist
Poggio Bracciolini
Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (11 February 1380 – 30 October 1459), usually referred to simply as Poggio Bracciolini, was an Italian scholar and an early Renaissance humanist. He was responsible for rediscovering and recovering many clas ...
in the
library of Saint Gall Abbey.
Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, ''
De re aedificatoria'' (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though the original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
in 1511 by
Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with
woodcut
Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas tha ...
illustrations based on descriptions in the text.
Life and career
Little is known about Vitruvius' life. Most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work ''
De Architectura''. His full name is sometimes given as "Marcus Vitruvius Pollio", but both the first and last names are uncertain.
Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a ''
Lucius Vitruvius Cordo'', and an inscription from
Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a ''Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra'' have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and
Mamurra (who was a military ''praefectus fabrum'' under
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by ''De Architectura'' (which Vitruvius dedicated to
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra.
Vitruvius was a military engineer (''
praefectus fabrum''), or a ''
praefect architectus armamentarius'' of the ''
apparitor'' status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
's table of contents for ''
Naturalis Historia'' (Natural History), in the heading for
mosaic
A mosaic is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place by plaster/mortar, and covering a surface. Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and were particularly pop ...
techniques.
Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st-century work ''
De aquaeductu''.
Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account, Vitruvius served in the
Roman army
The Roman army (Latin: ) was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom (c. 500 BC) to the Roman Republic (500–31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC–395 AD), and its medieval contin ...
under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius, and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of ''De architectura''. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the
Roman Theatre at Heraclea.
As an
army engineer
Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics b ...
he specialized in the construction of ''
ballista'' and ''
scorpio''
artillery
Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during si ...
war machines
War is an intense armed conflict between State (polity), states, governments, Society, societies, or paramilitary groups such as Mercenary, mercenaries, Insurgency, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violenc ...
for
siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or a well-prepared assault. This derives from la, sedere, lit=to sit. Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characteriz ...
s. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer
Lucius Cornelius Balbus.
The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout ''De Architectura'', he does not say he was present. His service likely included
north Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
,
Hispania
Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hi ...
,
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
(including
Aquitaine) and
Pontus.
To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by
Flavius Vegetius Renatus
Publius (or Flavius) Vegetius Renatus, known as Vegetius (), was a writer of the Later Roman Empire (late 4th century). Nothing is known of his life or station beyond what is contained in his two surviving works: ''Epitoma rei militaris'' (also r ...
in ''The Military Institutions of the Romans'':
The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the refect had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, '' onagri,'' ''balistae'' and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself.
At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and
sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of
Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the
Gallic War
The Gallic Wars were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general Julius Caesar against the peoples of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland). Gallic, Germanic, and British tribes fought to defend their homela ...
there are references to:
* The siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at
Avaricum in 52 BC.
Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they
aulsthemselves were unacquainted."
* The broken siege at
Gergovia in 52 BC.
* The circumvallation and
Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. The women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, and then starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers.
* The siege of
Uxellodunum in 51 BC.
These are all sieges of large Gallic ''
oppida''. Of the sites involved in
Caesar's civil war
Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC) was one of the last politico-military conflicts of the Roman Republic before its reorganization into the Roman Empire. It began as a series of political and military confrontations between Gaius Julius Caesar an ...
, we find the
Siege of Massilia in 49 BC, the
Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the
Battle of Pharsalus
The Battle of Pharsalus was the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War fought on 9 August 48 BC near Pharsalus in central Greece. Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the Roman Republic under the command of Pompey ...
in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the
Battle of Zela
The Battle of Zela was a battle fought in 47 BC between Julius Caesar and Pharnaces II of the Kingdom of Pontus. The battle took place near Zela (modern Zile), which is now a small hilltop town in the Tokat province of northern Turkey. The ba ...
of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and the
Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's
African campaign.
A
legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the
Legio VI Ferrata
Legio VI Ferrata ("Sixth Ironclad Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. In 30 BC it became part of the emperor Augustus's standing army. It continued in existence into the 4th century. A ''Legio VI'' fought in the Roman Republican ...
, of which ''ballista'' would be an auxiliary unit.
Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture,
construction management,
construction engineering,
chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is an engineering field which deals with the study of operation and design of chemical plants as well as methods of improving production. Chemical engineers develop economical commercial processes to convert raw materials in ...
, civil engineering,
materials engineering, mechanical engineering,
military engineering and
urban planning
Urban planning, also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or rural planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, ...
;
architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture.
In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the
miasma theory – the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying:
Frontinus mentions Vitruvious in connection with the standard sizes of
pipes: the role he is most widely respected. He is often credited as father of
architectural acoustics for describing the technique of ''
echeas'' placement in theaters.
The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a ''
basilica
In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building gave its nam ...
'' completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of
Fano
Fano is a town and '' comune'' of the province of Pesaro and Urbino in the Marche region of Italy. It is a beach resort southeast of Pesaro, located where the '' Via Flaminia'' reaches the Adriatic Sea. It is the third city in the region by ...
. The ''Basilica di Fano'' (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman ''basilicae'' (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the ''basilica'' may be incorporated into the cathedral in Fano.
In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister
Octavia Minor
Octavia the Younger ( la, Octavia Minor; c. 66 BC – 11 BC) was the elder sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus (known also as Octavian), the half-sister of Octavia the Elder, and the fourth wife of Mark Antony. She was also the great-gr ...
, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence.
Whether ''De architectura'' was written by one author or is a compilation completed by subsequent librarians and copyists, remains an open question. The date of his death is unknown, which suggests that he had enjoyed only a little popularity during his lifetime.
Gerolamo Cardano
Gerolamo Cardano (; also Girolamo or Geronimo; french: link=no, Jérôme Cardan; la, Hieronymus Cardanus; 24 September 1501– 21 September 1576) was an Italian polymath, whose interests and proficiencies ranged through those of mathematician, ...
, in his 1552 book ''De subtilitate rerum'', ranks Vitruvius as one of the 12 persons whom he supposes to have excelled all men in the force of genius and invention; and would not have scrupled to have given him the first place if it could be imagined that he had delivered nothing but his own discoveries.
''De architectura''
Vitruvius is the author of ''De architectura, libri decem'', known today as ''The Ten Books on Architecture'',
[Vitruvius, Pollio (transl. Morris Hicky Morgan, 1960), ''The Ten Books on Architecture''. Courier Dover Publications. .] a treatise written in
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. In the preface of Book I, Vitruvius dedicates his writings to giving personal knowledge of the quality of buildings to the emperor. Likely Vitruvius is referring to
Marcus Agrippa's campaign of public repairs and improvements. This work is the only surviving major book on architecture from
classical antiquity
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
. According to Petri Liukkonen, this text "influenced deeply from the
Early Renaissance onwards artists, thinkers, and architects, among them
Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472),
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on ...
(1452–1519), and
Michelangelo
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known as Michelangelo (), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was ins ...
(1475–1564)."
The next major book on architecture,
Alberti's reformulation of ''Ten Books'', was not written until 1452.
Vitruvius is famous for asserting in his book ''De architectura'' that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of ''firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis'' – that is, stability, utility, and beauty. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad. According to Vitruvius, architecture is an imitation of nature. As birds and bees built their nests, so humans constructed housing from natural materials, that gave them shelter against the elements. When perfecting this art of building, the Greeks invented the architectural orders:
Doric Doric may refer to:
* Doric, of or relating to the Dorians of ancient Greece
** Doric Greek, the dialects of the Dorians
* Doric order, a style of ancient Greek architecture
* Doric mode, a synonym of Dorian mode
* Doric dialect (Scotland)
* Doric ...
,
Ionic and
Corinthian. It gave them a sense of proportion, culminating in understanding the proportions of the greatest work of art: the human body. This led Vitruvius in defining his
Vitruvian Man, as drawn later by
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on ...
: the human body inscribed in the circle and the square (the fundamental geometric patterns of the cosmic order). In this book series, Vitruvius, also wrote about
climate
Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorologi ...
in relation to housing architecture and how to choose locations for cities.
Scope
Vitruvius is sometimes loosely referred to as the first architect, but it is more accurate to describe him as the first Roman architect to have written surviving records of his field. He himself cites older but less complete works. He was less an original thinker or creative intellect than a codifier of existing architectural practice. Vitruvius had a much wider scope than modern architects.
Roman architects practised a wide variety of disciplines; in modern terms, they could be described as being engineers, architects,
landscape architects
A landscape architect is a person who is educated in the field of landscape architecture. The practice of landscape architecture includes: site analysis, site inventory, site planning, land planning, planting design, grading, storm water manage ...
, surveyors, artists, and
craftsmen
Craftsman may refer to:
A profession
*Artisan, a skilled manual worker who makes items that may be functional or strictly decorative
*Master craftsman, an artisan who has achieved such a standard that he may establish his own workshop and take o ...
combined. Etymologically the word architect derives from Greek words meaning 'master' and 'builder'. The first of the ''Ten Books'' deals with many subjects which now come within the scope of
landscape architecture.
In Book I, Chapter 1, titled The Education of the Architect, Vitruvius instructs...
He goes on to say that the architect should be versed in drawing, geometry, optics (lighting), history, philosophy, music, theatre, medicine, and law.
In Book I, Chapter 3 (''The Departments of Architecture''), Vitruvius divides architecture into three branches, namely; building; the construction of
sundials and
water clocks
A water clock or clepsydra (; ; ) is a timepiece by which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel, and where the amount is then measured.
Water clocks are one of the oldest time-m ...
; and the design and use of machines in construction and warfare. He further divides building into public and private. Public building includes city planning, public security structures such as walls, gates and towers; the convenient placing of public facilities such as theatres, forums and markets, baths, roads and pavings; and the construction and position of shrines and temples for religious use.
Later books are devoted to the understanding, design and construction of each of these.
Proportions of man
In Book III, Chapter 1, Paragraph 3, Vitruvius writes about the proportions of man:
It was upon these writings that Renaissance engineers, architects and artists like
Mariano di Jacopo Taccola, Pellegrino Prisciani and
Francesco di Giorgio Martini
Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439–1501) was an Italian architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, and writer. As a painter, he belonged to the Sienese School. He was considered a visionary architectural theorist—in Nikolaus Pevsner's terms ...
and finally
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on ...
based the illustration of the
Vitruvian Man.
Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion.
The drawing itself is often used as an implied symbol of the essential
symmetry
Symmetry (from grc, συμμετρία "agreement in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement") in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, "symmetry" has a more precise definiti ...
of the human body, and by extension, of the
universe
The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the univers ...
as a whole.
Lists of names given in Book VII Introduction
In the introduction to book seven, Vitruvius goes to great lengths to present why he is qualified to write ''De Architectura''. This is the only location in the work where Vitruvius specifically addresses his personal breadth of knowledge. Similar to a modern reference section, the author's position as one who is knowledgeable and educated is established. The topics range across many fields of expertise reflecting that in Roman times as today construction is a diverse field. Vitruvius is clearly a well-read man.
In addition to providing his qualification, Vitruvius summarizes a recurring theme throughout the 10 books, a non-trivial and core contribution of his treatise beyond simply being a construction book. Vitruvius makes the point that the work of some of the most talented is unknown, while many of those of lesser talent but greater political position are famous.
This theme runs through Vitruvius's ten books repeatedly – echoing an implicit prediction that he and his works will also be forgotten.
Vitruvius illustrates this point by naming what he considers the most talented individuals in history.
Implicitly challenging the reader that they have never heard of some of these people, Vitruvius goes on and predicts that some of these individuals will be forgotten and their works
lost
Lost may refer to getting lost, or to:
Geography
* Lost, Aberdeenshire, a hamlet in Scotland
*Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail, or LOST, a hiking and cycling trail in Florida, US
History
*Abbreviation of lost work, any work which is known to have bee ...
, while other, less deserving political characters of history will be forever remembered with pageantry.
*''List of physicists:''
Thales
Thales of Miletus ( ; grc-gre, Θαλῆς; ) was a Greek mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded ...
,
Democritus
Democritus (; el, Δημόκριτος, ''Dēmókritos'', meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. No ...
,
Anaxagoras,
Xenophanes
Xenophanes of Colophon (; grc, Ξενοφάνης ὁ Κολοφώνιος ; c. 570 – c. 478 BC) was a Greek philosopher, theologian, poet, and critic of Homer from Ionia who travelled throughout the Greek-speaking world in early Classica ...
*''List of philosophers:''
Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...
,
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
,
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
,
Zeno
Zeno ( grc, Ζήνων) may refer to:
People
* Zeno (name), including a list of people and characters with the name
Philosophers
* Zeno of Elea (), philosopher, follower of Parmenides, known for his paradoxes
* Zeno of Citium (333 – 264 BC), ...
,
Epicurus
*''List of kings:''
Croesus
Croesus ( ; Lydian: ; Phrygian: ; grc, Κροισος, Kroisos; Latin: ; reigned: c. 585 – c. 546 BC) was the king of Lydia, who reigned from 585 BC until his defeat by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 547 or 546 BC.
Croesus was r ...
,
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
,
Darius
*''On plagiarism:''
Aristophanes
Aristophanes (; grc, Ἀριστοφάνης, ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion ( la, Cydathenaeum), was a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy. Eleven of his ...
,
Ptolemy I Soter
Ptolemy I Soter (; gr, Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ, ''Ptolemaîos Sōtḗr'' "Ptolemy the Savior"; c. 367 BC – January 282 BC) was a Macedonian Greek general, historian and companion of Alexander the Great from the Kingdom of Macedo ...
, a person named
Attalus
*''On abusing dead authors:''
Zoilus Homeromastix,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
*''On divergence of the visual rays:''
Agatharchus
Agatharchus or Agatharch ( grc, Ἀγάθαρχος) was a self-taught painter from Samos, who lived in the 5th century BC. His father was named Eudemos (Εὔδημος).
He is said by Vitruvius to have invented scenic painting, and to have pai ...
,
Aeschylus
Aeschylus (, ; grc-gre, Αἰσχύλος ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian, and is often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier Gree ...
,
Democritus
Democritus (; el, Δημόκριτος, ''Dēmókritos'', meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. No ...
,
Anaxagoras
*''List of writers on temples:'' Silenus, ''Theodorus'',
Chersiphron and
Metagenes,
Ictinus
Ictinus (; el, Ἰκτῖνος, ''Iktinos'') was an architect active in the mid 5th century BC. Ancient sources identify Ictinus and Callicrates as co-architects of the Parthenon. He co-wrote a book on the project – which is now lost – in col ...
and
Carpion
Karpion was an ancient Greek architect and architectural theorist active in the fifth century BC. On the testimony of Vitruvius (7, praefatio 12) he and Iktinos co-authored a treatise on the proportions of the Parthenon, the major Periklean Tem ...
, ''Theodorus the Phocian'',
Hermogenes,
Arcesius,
Satyrus and a person named
Pytheos
*''List of artists:''
Leochares,
Bryaxis
Bryaxis ( grc, Βρύαξις or Βρύασσις; fl. 350 BC) was a Greek sculptor. He created the sculptures on the north side of the mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus which was commissioned by the queen Artemisia II of Caria in memory of ...
,
Scopas,
Praxiteles
Praxiteles (; el, Πραξιτέλης) of Athens, the son of Cephisodotus the Elder, was the most renowned of the Attica sculptors of the 4th century BC. He was the first to sculpt the nude female form in a life-size statue. While no indubita ...
, Timotheos
*''List of writers on laws of symmetry:'' ''Nexaris'', ''Theocydes'', a person named
Demophilus, ''Pollis'', a person named
Leonidas,
Silanion,
Melampus, ''Sarnacus'',
Euphranor
*''List of writers on machinery:''
Diades of Pella,
Archytas,
Archimedes,
Ctesibius
Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( grc-gre, Κτησίβιος; fl. 285–222 BC) was a Greek inventor and mathematician in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt. He wrote the first treatises on the science of compressed air and its uses in pumps (a ...
, ''
Nymphodorus'',
Philo of Byzantium,
Diphilus
Diphilus ( Greek: Δίφιλος), of Sinope, was a poet of the new Attic comedy and a contemporary of Menander (342–291 BC). He is frequently listed together with Menander and Philemon, considered the three greatest poets of New Comedy. He w ...
,
Democles
Democles ( grc-gre, Δημοκλῆς; fl. 4th century BC) was an Athenian orator, and a contemporary of Demochares, among whose opponents he is mentioned.
He was a disciple of Theophrastus, and was chiefly known as the defender of the childr ...
, ''Charias'',
Polyidus of Thessaly,
Pyrrus
Pyrrhus (; grc-gre, Πύρρος ; 319/318–272 BC) was a Greek king and statesman of the Hellenistic period.Plutarch. '' Parallel Lives'',Pyrrhus... He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house, and later he be ...
, ''Agesistratus''
*''List of writers on architecture:'' ''Fuficius'',
Terentius Varro The Terentii Varrones a branch of the '' gens Terentia'' in ancient Rome.
Members
* Gaius Terentius Varro (d. sometime after 200 BC), the surviving commander of the defeated Roman army at the Battle of Cannae.
* Aulus Terentius Varro, an envoy '' ...
, ''Publius Septimius (writer)''
*''List of architects:'' ''Antistates'', ''Callaeschrus'', ''Antimachides'', ''Pormus'', ''Cossutius''
*''List of greatest temple architects:'' ''Chersiphron of Gnosus'',
Metagenes,
Demetrius, ''Paeonius the Milesian'', ''Ephesian Daphnis'',
Ictinus
Ictinus (; el, Ἰκτῖνος, ''Iktinos'') was an architect active in the mid 5th century BC. Ancient sources identify Ictinus and Callicrates as co-architects of the Parthenon. He co-wrote a book on the project – which is now lost – in col ...
,
Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's de ...
, ''Cossutius'', ''Gaius Mucianus''
Rediscovery
Vitruvius' ''
De architectura'' was "rediscovered" in 1414 by the Florentine humanist
Poggio Bracciolini
Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (11 February 1380 – 30 October 1459), usually referred to simply as Poggio Bracciolini, was an Italian scholar and an early Renaissance humanist. He was responsible for rediscovering and recovering many clas ...
in the
library of Saint Gall Abbey.
Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) publicised it in his seminal treatise on architecture, ''
De re aedificatoria'' (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome, 1486. Translations followed in Italian (
Cesare Cesariano
240px, The 1521 Italian edition of Vitruvius' ''De architectura'', translated and illustrated by Cesare Cesariano.">De_architectura.html" ;"title="Vitruvius' ''De architectura">Vitruvius' ''De architectura'', translated and illustrated by Cesar ...
, 1521), French (Jean Martin, 1547), English, German (
Walther H. Ryff, 1543) and Spanish and several other languages. The original illustrations had been lost and the first illustrated edition was published in
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
in 1511 by
Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with
woodcut
Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas tha ...
illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Later in the 16th-century
Andrea Palladio
Andrea Palladio ( ; ; 30 November 1508 – 19 August 1580) was an Italian Renaissance architect active in the Venetian Republic. Palladio, influenced by Roman and Greek architecture, primarily Vitruvius, is widely considered to be one of ...
provided illustrations for
Daniele Barbaro's commentary on Vitruvius, published in Italian and Latin versions. The most famous illustration is probably Da Vinci's ''
Vitruvian Man''.
The surviving ruins of Roman antiquity, the
Roman Forum, temples, theatres, triumphal arches and their reliefs and statues offered visual examples of the descriptions in the Vitruvian text. Printed and illustrated editions of ''De Architectura'' inspired
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
,
Baroque
The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including ...
and
Neoclassical architecture
Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy and France. It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the Western world. The prevailing sty ...
.
Filippo Brunelleschi
Filippo Brunelleschi ( , , also known as Pippo; 1377 – 15 April 1446), considered to be a founding father of Renaissance architecture, was an Italian architect, designer, and sculptor, and is now recognized to be the first modern engineer, p ...
, for example, invented a new type of
hoist
Hoist may refer to:
* Hoist (device), a machine for lifting loads
* Hoist controller, a machine for raising and lowering goods or personnel by means of a cable
* Hydraulic hooklift hoist, another machine
* Hoist (mining), another machine
* Hoist ( ...
to lift the large stones for the dome of the cathedral in
Florence
Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
and was inspired by ''De Architectura'' as well as surviving Roman monuments such as the
Pantheon
Pantheon may refer to:
* Pantheon (religion), a set of gods belonging to a particular religion or tradition, and a temple or sacred building
Arts and entertainment Comics
*Pantheon (Marvel Comics), a fictional organization
* ''Pantheon'' (Lone St ...
and the
Baths of Diocletian.
Notable editions
Latin
* 1495–1496
* 1543
* 1800 Augustus Rode, Berlin
* 1857
Teubner Edition by Valentin Rose
* 1899
Teubner Edition
* 1912
Teubner edition at
The Latin Library
The Latin Library is a website that collects public domain Latin texts. It is run by William L. Carey, adjunct professor of Latin and Roman Law at George Mason University. The texts have been drawn from different sources, are not intended for ...
* Bill Thayer, transcription of the 1912
Teubner Edition
Italian
*
Cesare Cesariano
240px, The 1521 Italian edition of Vitruvius' ''De architectura'', translated and illustrated by Cesare Cesariano.">De_architectura.html" ;"title="Vitruvius' ''De architectura">Vitruvius' ''De architectura'', translated and illustrated by Cesar ...
, 1521,
Como, Italy, includes illustrations by
Cesare Cesariano
240px, The 1521 Italian edition of Vitruvius' ''De architectura'', translated and illustrated by Cesare Cesariano.">De_architectura.html" ;"title="Vitruvius' ''De architectura">Vitruvius' ''De architectura'', translated and illustrated by Cesar ...
* Danielle Barbaro, includes illustration by
Andrea Palladio
Andrea Palladio ( ; ; 30 November 1508 – 19 August 1580) was an Italian Renaissance architect active in the Venetian Republic. Palladio, influenced by Roman and Greek architecture, primarily Vitruvius, is widely considered to be one of ...
French
* Jean Martin, 1547
*
Claude Perrault
Claude Perrault (25 September 1613 – 9 October 1688) was a French physician and an amateur architect, best known for his participation in the design of the east façade of the Louvre in Paris.[Auguste Choisy
Auguste Choisy (7 February 1841 – 18 September 1909) was a French architectural historian and author of ''Histoire de l'Architecture''.
Biography
Choisy was born in Vitry-le-François. He studied architecture in Paris at the École Polytechn ...]
, 1909
English
*
Henry Wotton, 1624
*
Joseph Gwilt
Joseph Gwilt (11 January 1784 – 14 September 1863) was an English architect and writer.
He was the son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the county of Surrey, and was born at Southwark. George Gwilt the Younger, was his elder brother.
H ...
, 1826
* Bill Thayer transcription of the Gwilt 1826 Edition
*
, with illustrations prepared by
Herbert Langford Warren
Herbert Langford Warren (29 March 1857 – 27 June 1917) was an architect who practiced in New England. He is noted for his involvement in the American Arts and Crafts movement, and as the founder of the School of Architecture at Harvard Univer ...
, 1914,
Harvard University Press
Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retir ...
* Frank Granger,
Loeb Edition, 1931
*
Ingrid Rowland
Ingrid D. Rowland (b. August 19, 1953) is a professor at the University of Notre Dame School of Architecture. She is a frequent contributor to ''The New York Review of Books''.
Biography
She is the daughter of Nobel Chemistry Prize laureate Fra ...
, 2001
* Thomas Gordon Smith, The Monacelli Press (5 January 2004)
Roman technology
Books VIII, IX and X form the basis of much of what we know about Roman technology, now augmented by archaeological studies of extant remains, such as the
water mills at
Barbegal in France. The other major source of information is the ''
Naturalis Historia'' compiled by
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
much later in c. 75 AD.
Machines
The work is important for its descriptions of the many different machines used for engineering structures such as
hoists,
cranes
Crane or cranes may refer to:
Common meanings
* Crane (bird), a large, long-necked bird
* Crane (machine), industrial machinery for lifting
** Crane (rail), a crane suited for use on railroads
People and fictional characters
* Crane (surname ...
and
pulleys, as well as war machines such as
catapult
A catapult is a ballistic device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants – particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. A catapult uses the sudden release of stor ...
s, ''
ballistae,'' and
siege engines. As a practising engineer, Vitruvius must be speaking from personal experience rather than simply describing the works of others. He also describes the construction of
sundials and
water clocks
A water clock or clepsydra (; ; ) is a timepiece by which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel, and where the amount is then measured.
Water clocks are one of the oldest time-m ...
, and the use of an
aeolipile
An aeolipile, aeolipyle, or eolipile, from the Greek "αιολουπυλη", also known as a Hero's engine, is a simple, bladeless radial steam turbine which spins when the central water container is heated. Torque is produced by steam jets ex ...
(the first
steam engine
A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be ...
) as an experiment to demonstrate the nature of atmospheric air movements (wind).
Aqueducts
His description of
aqueduct construction includes the way they are surveyed, and the careful choice of materials needed, although
Frontinus (a general who was appointed in the late 1st century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome), writing a century later, gives much more detail of the practical problems involved in their construction and maintenance. Surely Vitruvius' book would have been of great assistance in this. Vitruvius was writing in the 1st century BC when many of the finest
Roman aqueducts were built, and survive to this day, such as those at
Segovia and the
Pont du Gard
The Pont du Gard is an ancient Roman aqueduct bridge built in the first century AD to carry water over to the Roman colony of ''Nemausus'' ( Nîmes). It crosses the river Gardon near the town of Vers-Pont-du-Gard in southern France. The Po ...
. The use of the
inverted siphon is described in detail, together with the problems of high pressures developed in the pipe at the base of the siphon, a practical problem with which he seems to be acquainted.
Materials
He describes many different
construction materials used for a wide variety of different structures, as well as such details as
stucco painting. Concrete and
lime receive in-depth descriptions.
Vitruvius is cited as one of the earliest sources to connect lead mining and manufacture, its use in drinking water pipes, and its adverse effects on health. For this reason, he recommended the use of clay pipes and masonry channels in the provision of piped drinking-water.
Vitruvius is the source for the anecdote that credits
Archimedes with the discovery of the
mass-to-volume ratio while relaxing in his bath. Having been asked to investigate the suspected adulteration of the gold used to make a crown, Archimedes realised that the crown's volume could be measured exactly by its displacement of water, and ran into the street with the cry of''
Eureka!''
Dewatering machines
He describes the construction of
Archimedes' screw
The Archimedes screw, also known as the Archimedean screw, hydrodynamic screw, water screw or Egyptian screw, is one of the earliest hydraulic machines. Using Archimedes screws as water pumps (Archimedes screw pump (ASP) or screw pump) dates back ...
in Chapter X (without mentioning Archimedes by name). It was a device widely used for raising water to irrigate fields and drain mines. Other lifting machines he mentions include the endless chain of buckets and the
reverse overshot water-wheel
Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere (such as agricultural drainage), the reverse overshot water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings. It is described by Vitruvius in his work ' ...
. Remains of the water wheels used for lifting water were discovered when old mines were re-opened at
Rio Tinto in Spain,
Rosia Montana Rosia may refer to:
*Rosia, the Greek name for Rus' (region)
*Rosia, Sovicille, a village in Tuscany, Italy
*Roșia (disambiguation), villages in Romania
*Roșia Montană, a commune in Romania
*Roșia, a tributary of the river Dorna in Romania
*Ro ...
in Romania and
Dolaucothi in west
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the Bristol Channel to the south. It had a population in ...
. The Rio Tinto wheel is now shown in the
British Museum
The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
, and the Dolaucothi specimen in the
National Museum of Wales.
Surveying instruments
That he must have been well practised in surveying is shown by his descriptions of surveying instruments, especially the water level or ''
chorobates,'' which he compares favourably with the ''
groma,'' a device using
plumb lines. They were essential in all building operations, but especially in aqueduct construction, where a uniform gradient was important to the provision of a regular supply of water without damage to the walls of the channel. He also developed one of the first
odometers, consisting of a wheel of known circumference that dropped a pebble into a container on every rotation.
Central heating
He describes the many innovations made in building design to improve the living conditions of the inhabitants. Foremost among them is the development of the ''
hypocaust
A hypocaust ( la, hypocaustum) is a system of central heating in a building that produces and circulates hot air below the floor of a room, and may also warm the walls with a series of pipes through which the hot air passes. This air can warm th ...
,'' a type of
central heating
A central heating system provides warmth to a number of spaces within a building from one main source of heat. It is a component of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (short: HVAC) systems, which can both cool and warm interior spaces.
...
where hot air developed by a fire was channelled under the floor and inside the walls of
public baths and
villa
A villa is a type of house that was originally an ancient Roman upper class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became ...
s. He gives explicit instructions how to design such buildings so that
fuel efficiency
Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the ratio of effort to result of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier (fuel) into kinetic energy or work. Overall fuel efficiency may vary per device ...
is maximised, so that for example, the ''
caldarium
230px, Caldarium from the Roman Baths at Bath, England. The floor has been removed to reveal the empty space where the hot air flowed through to heat the floor.
A caldarium (also called a calidarium, cella caldaria or cella coctilium) was a room ...
'' is next to the ''
tepidarium'' followed by the ''
frigidarium''. He also advises on using a type of regulator to control the heat in the hot rooms, a
bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids suc ...
disc set into the roof under a circular aperture which could be raised or lowered by a
pulley to adjust the ventilation. Although he does not suggest it himself, it is likely that his dewatering devices such as the
reverse overshot water-wheel
Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere (such as agricultural drainage), the reverse overshot water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings. It is described by Vitruvius in his work ' ...
were used in the larger baths to lift water to header tanks at the top of the larger ''thermae'', such as the
Baths of Diocletian. The one which was used in Bath of Caracalla for grinding flour.
Legacy
*
Vitruvian Man – a drawing by
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on ...
*
''Vitruvius Britannicus'' – 18th century work on British architecture named after Vitruvius.
*''
Den Danske Vitruvius
''Den Danske Vitruvius'' (English: ''The Danish Vitruvius'') is a richly illustrated 18th-century architectural work on Danish monumental buildings of the period, written by the Danish Baroque architect Lauritz de Thurah. It was commissioned by Chr ...
'' – 18th century work on Danish architecture – inspired by Vitruvius Britannicus.
* ''The American Vitruvius'' – 20th century work on civil architecture by
Werner Hegemann
Werner Hegemann (June 15, 1881, Mannheim – April 12, 1936, New York City) was an internationally known city planner, architecture critic, and author. A leading German intellectual during the Weimar Republic, his criticism of Hitler and the Na ...
*
William Vitruvius Morrison (1794–1838), the son of Irish architect
Sir Richard Morrison and himself a noted architect of great houses, bridges, court houses and prisons.
*A small
lunar crater
Lunar craters are impact craters on Earth's Moon. The Moon's surface has many craters, all of which were formed by impacts. The International Astronomical Union currently recognizes 9,137 craters, of which 1,675 have been dated.
History
The w ...
has been named after Vitruvius and also an elongated lunar mountain
Mons Vitruvius
Mons Vitruvius is a mountain on the Moon that is located in the Montes Taurus region just to the north of Mare Tranquillitatis and to the southeast of Mare Serenitatis. This massif is located at selenographic coordinates of 19.4° N, 30.8° ...
close by.
*The
Design Quality Indicator (DQI) tool for buildings uses Vitruvius's principles.
See also
*
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
*
Ctesibius
Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( grc-gre, Κτησίβιος; fl. 285–222 BC) was a Greek inventor and mathematician in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt. He wrote the first treatises on the science of compressed air and its uses in pumps (a ...
*
Colen Campbell
*
Frontinus
*
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
*
Roman architecture
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered on ...
*
Roman aqueducts
*
Roman engineering
*
Roman technology
*
Vitruvian man
*
Vitruvian scroll
The Vitruvian scroll is a scroll pattern used in architectural moldings and borders in other media. It is also known as the Vitruvian wave, wave scroll, or running dog pattern. The pattern resembles waves in water or a series of parchment scrol ...
*
Lucius Vitruvius Cordo
References
Sources
* Indra Kagis McEwen, ''Vitruvius: Writing the Body of Architecture''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004.
* B. Baldwin, "The Date, Identity, and Career of Vitruvius". In ''Latomus'' 49 (1990), 425–34.
*
Kai Brodersen & Christiane Brodersen: Cetius Faventinus. Das römische Eigenheim / De architectura privata, Latin and German. Wiesbaden: Marix 2015,
Further reading
* Clarke, Georgia. 2002. "Vitruvian Paradigms". ''Papers of the British School at Rome'' 70:319–346.
* De Angelis, Francesco. 2015. "Greek and Roman Specialized Writing on Art and Architecture". In ''The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Art and Architecture''. Edited by Clemente Marconi, 41–69. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
* König, Alice. 2009. "From Architect to Imperator: Vitruvius and his Addressee in the De Architectura". In ''Authorial Voices in Greco-Roman Technical Writing''. Edited by Liba Chaia Taub and Aude Doody, 31–52. Trier, Germany: WVT Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.
* Milnor, Kristina L. 2005. "Other Men's Wives". In ''Gender, Domesticity and the Age of Augustus: Inventing Private Life''. By
Kristina Milnor Kristina Milnor is Professor of Classics in the Department of Classics and Ancient Studies at Barnard College, Columbia University. She specialises in Latin literature, Roman history, feminist theory and gender studies.
Education
Milnor receive ...
, 94–139. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
* Nichols, Marden Fitzpatrick. 2017".Author and Audience in Vitruvius’ De Architectura". Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
* Rowland, Ingrid D. 2014. "Vitruvius and His Influence". In ''A Companion to Roman Architecture''. Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen, 412–425. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
* Sear, Frank B. 1990. "Vitruvius and Roman Theater Design". ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 94.2: 249–258.
* Smith, Thomas Gordon. 2004. ''Vitruvius on Architecture''. New York: Monacelli Press.
* Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1994. "The Articulation of the House". In ''Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum''. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 38–61. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
* Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 2008. "Vitruvius: Building Roman Identity". In ''Rome's Cultural Revolution''. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 144–210. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
External links
*
*
*
''The Ten Books on Architecture''online: cross-linked Latin text and English translation
''The Ten Books on Architecture''at the Perseus Classics Collection. Latin and English text. Latin text has hyperlinks to pop-up dictionary.
An Abridgment of the Architecture of Vitruvius (Morris Hicky Morgan translation with illustrations)
Vitruvius online*
ttp://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/bodies/vitruvius/proportion.html Vitruvius' theories of beauty– a learning resource from the British Library
Animation: The Odometer of VitruvOnline Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma LibrariesHigh resolution images of works by Vitruvius in .jpg and .tiff format.
digital scans in high resolution of 73 editions of Vitruvius from 1497 to 1909from th
Werner Oechslin Library, Einsiedeln, Switzerland* VITRUVII, M
''De architectura'' Naples, (c. 1480). A
Somni
{{Authority control
1st-century BC births
1st-century BC Romans
1st-century deaths
1st-century BC architects
1st-century BC Latin writers
Ancient Roman architects
Ancient Roman civil engineers
Ancient Roman military engineers
Ancient Roman soldiers
Architectural theoreticians
Classical antiquarian architecture writers
Golden Age Latin writers
History of mining
Military personnel of Julius Caesar
Roman military writers
Roman people of the Gallic Wars
Year of death unknown