Vishtaspa ( ae, 𐬬𐬌𐬱𐬙𐬁𐬯𐬞𐬀 ; peo, 𐎻𐏁𐎫𐎠𐎿𐎱 ; fa, گشتاسپ ; grc, Ὑστάσπης ) is the Avestan-language name of a figure of

Zoroastrian Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheisti ...

scripture and tradition, portrayed as an early follower of

Zoroaster Zoroaster,; fa, زرتشت, Zartosht, label= Modern Persian; ku, زەردەشت, Zerdeşt also known as Zarathustra,, . Also known as Zarathushtra Spitama, or Ashu Zarathushtra is regarded as the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism. He is ...

, and his patron, and instrumental in the diffusion of the prophet's message. Although Vishtaspa is not epigraphically attested, he is – like Zoroaster – traditionally assumed to have been a historical figure, although obscured by accretions from

legend A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived, both by teller and listeners, to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess ...

and

myth Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...

. In Zoroastrian tradition, which builds on allusions found in the

Avesta The Avesta () is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. The Avesta texts fall into several different categories, arranged either by dialect, or by usage. The principal text in the lit ...

, Vishtaspa is a righteous king who helped propagate and defend the faith. In the non-Zoroastrian

Sistan Sistān ( fa, سیستان), known in ancient times as Sakastān ( fa, سَكاستان, "the land of the Saka"), is a historical and geographical region in present-day Eastern Iran ( Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and Southern Afghanistan ( ...

cycle texts, Vishtaspa is a loathsome ruler of the

Kayanian dynasty The Kayanians (Persian: دودمان کیانیان; also Kays, Kayanids, Kaianids, Kayani, or Kiani) are a legendary dynasty of Persian/Iranian tradition and folklore which supposedly ruled after the Pishdadians. Considered collectively, the Kay ...

who intentionally sends his eldest son to a certain death. In

Greco-Roman The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were di ...

literature, Zoroaster's patron was the pseudo-anonymous author of a set of prophecies written under his name.

In scripture

Vishtaspa is referred to in the

Gathas The Gathas ()"Gatha"
''

, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism which were considered to have been composed by Zoroaster himself. In these hymns, the poet speaks of Vishtaspa as his ally (''

Yasna Yasna (;"Yasna"
'' Vohu Manah (''Y''. 51. 16), and committed to spreading the prophet's message (''Y''. 51. 16, 46. 15, 53. 2). In ''Yasna'' 28. 1–28. 7, Zoroaster appeals to Mazda for several boons, including the power to vanquish their foes for Vishtaspa and himself. Considered collectively, the Gathas celebrate Vishtaspa as the "patron of Zoroaster and the establisher of the first Zoroastrian community. ". The Gathic allusions recur in the '' Yashts'' of the Younger Avesta. The appeal to Mazda for a boon reappears in ''Yasht'' 5. 98, where the boon is asked for the Haugvan and Naotara families, and in which Vishtaspa is said to be a member of the latter. Later in the same hymn, Zoroaster is described as appealing to Mazda to "bring Vishtaspa, son of Aurvataspa, to think according to Daena (Religion), to speak according to the Religion, to act according to the Religion." (''Yt''. 5. 104–105). In ''Yasht'' 9. 25–26, the last part of which is an adaptation of the Gathic ''Yasna'' 49. 7, the prophet makes the same appeal with regard to Hutaosa, wife of Vishtaspa. In ''Yasht'' 9. 130, Vishtaspa himself appeals for the ability to drive off the attacks of the ''

daeva A daeva (Avestan: 𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬎𐬎𐬀 ''daēuua'') is a Zoroastrian supernatural entity with disagreeable characteristics. In the Gathas, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon, the ''daeva''s are "gods that are (to be) rejected". This ...

''-worshipping Arejat.aspa and other members of ''drujvant'' Hyaona family. Similarly in ''Yasht'' 5. 109, Vishtaspa pleads for strength that he may "crush Tathryavant of the bad religion, the ''daeva''-worshipper Peshana, and the wicked Arejataspa.". Elsewhere (''Yt''. 5. 112–113), Vishtaspa also pleads for strength on behalf of Zairivairi (Pahl. Zarēr), who in later tradition is said to be Vishtaspa's younger brother. The allusions to conflicts (perhaps battles, see

below Below may refer to: *Earth * Ground (disambiguation) *Soil *Floor * Bottom (disambiguation) *Less than *Temperatures below freezing *Hell or underworld People with the surname *Ernst von Below (1863–1955), German World War I general *Fred Below ...

) are again obliquely referred to in ''Yasht'' 13. 99–100, in which the

fravashi Fravashi ( ae, 𐬟𐬭𐬀𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬴𐬌, translit=fravaṣ̌i, ) is the Avestan language term for the Zoroastrian concept of a personal spirit of an individual, whether dead, living, or yet-unborn. The ''fravashi'' of an individual sends ...

s of Zoroaster and Vishtaspa are described as victorious combatants for

Asha Asha (; also arta ; ae, 𐬀𐬴𐬀, translit=aṣ̌a/arta) is a Zoroastrian concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right(eousness)', 'ord ...

, and the rescuers and furtherers of the religion. This description is repeated in ''Yasht'' 19. 84–87, where Zoroaster, Vishtaspa and Vishtaspa's ancestors are additionally said to possess ''

khvarenah Khvarenah (also spelled khwarenah or xwarra(h): ae, 𐬓𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬥𐬀𐬵 ') is an Avestan word for a Zoroastrian concept literally denoting "glory" or "splendour" but understood as a divine mystical force or power projected upon and aidin ...

''.. While the chief hero of the conflicts is said to be Vishtaspa's son, Spentodhata, (''Yt. '' 13. 103) in ''Yasht'' 13. 100, Vishtaspa is proclaimed to have set his adopted faith "in the place of honor" amongst peoples... Passages in the ''Frawardin Yasht'' (''Yt. '' 13. 99–103) and elsewhere have enabled commentators to infer family connections between Vishtaspa and several other figures named in the Avesta.''cf. '' . The summaries of several lost Avestan texts (''Wishtasp sast nask'', ''Spand nask'', ''Chihrdad nask'', and ''Varshtmansar nask''), as reported in the '' Denkard'' (respectively 8. 11, 8. 13, 8. 14, and 9. 33. 5), suggest that there once existed a detailed "history" of Vishtaspa and his ancestors in scripture.. The ''Yasht'' 13 mentions Zairiuuairi, Piší šiiaoθna (Vishtaspa's eschatological son Pišišōtan), Spəṇtōδāta (Spandyād), Bastauuairi (Bastwar), Kauuarazman, Frašaoštra and Jāmāspa (the Huuōguua brothers in the Gathas), all of whom are featured in the Pahlavi narrative about the war between Vishtaspa and Arzāsp (Arjāsp, king of the Xiiaonas). In ''Yasht'' 9.31, Vishtaspa prays to Druuāspā that he may successfully fight and kill various opponents and, apparently, turn Humaiiā and Varəδakanā away from the lands of the Xiiaonas. In ''Yasna'' 12, the Zarathustra, Vishtaspa, Frašaoštra and Jāmāspa, and the three Saošiiaṇts, Zarathustra's eschatological sons, and in ''Yasna'' 23.2 and 26.5, the fravashi of Gaiia Marətān, Zarathustra, Vishtaspa, and Isaṯ.vāstra (another of Zarathustra's eschatological sons) are listed as the principal fighters for Asha. The meaning of Vishtaspa's name is uncertain. Interpretations include "'he whose horses have (''or'' horse has) come in ready (for riding, etc.)'"; "'he who has trained horses'"; and "'whose horses are released (for the race)'".For a review of older (early 20th century) interpretations, see . It agrees with the description from Yasht 5.132 in which was a prototypical winner of the chariot race.

In tradition and folklore

In Zoroastrian tradition

In the Gathas, Vishtaspa is repeatedly (''Y. '' 46. 14, 51. 16, 53. 2) referred to as a ''kavi'', which is etymologically a term for a mantic seer, or poet-priest, and in ''Yasna'' 28. 11 is also used of Zoroaster's enemies.. In the Younger Avesta the term is also applied to wise men generally, to include Vishtaspa and his ancestors. In tradition however, the kavis are kings, "evidently because Vīštāspa and his forebears, the 'kavis' ''par excellence'', were princely rulers. Presumably the gift of prophecy, of mantic poetry, was hereditary in their family. " Both scripture and tradition refer to Vishtaspa's ancestors but do not mention Vishtaspa's successors; Vishtaspa was apparently the last of his line, and the last of the kavis. In Zoroastrian apocalyptic chronology, the dynasties of the world are divided into seven ages, each named after a metal. According to this chronology ('' Zand-i Wahman yasn'' 2. 16, ''Dabistan'' 140), Vishtaspa (in Zoroastrian

Middle Persian Middle Persian or Pahlavi, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg () in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasanian Empire. For some time after the Sasanian collapse, Middle P ...

''Wishtasp'') ascent to the throne ended the reign of silver, and his reign was over the age of gold.. In tradition, the works of Zoroaster were said to have been kept in a royal library that was then destroyed by Alexander the Great. In ''Denkard'' 3. 420, it is Vishtaspa who is said to have been the king who had those texts made and placed in the royal library. The ''Yasht'''s allusions to conflicts are amplified in the 9th–11th century books of Zoroastrian tradition, where the conflicts are portrayed as outright battles of the faith. So for example the surviving fragments of a fragmentary text that celebrates the deeds of Zairivairi, Vishtaspa's brother and captain of his forces against Arejat.aspa, chief of the Hyonas. According to that text (''Ayadgar i Zareran'', 10–11), upon hearing of Vishtaspa's conversion, Arejat.aspa sent messengers to demand that Vishtaspa "abandon 'the pure Mazda-worshipping religion which he had received from Ohrmazd', and should become once more 'of the same religion'" as himself. The battle that following Vishtaspa's refusal left Vishtaspa victorious. The conversion of Vishtaspa is likewise a theme of the 9th–11th century books, and these legends remain the "best known and most current" among Zoroastrians today.. According to this tradition, when Zoroaster arrived at Vishtaspa's court, the prophet was "met with hostility from the ''kayag''s and ''karab''s (''kavi''s and ''karapan''s), with whom he disputed at a great assembly–a tradition which may well be based on reality, for ishtaspamust have had his own priests and seers, who would hardly have welcomed a new prophet claiming divine authority. ". The tradition goes on to relate that Zoroaster triumphed after three days of debate, only to be maligned by his enemies to Vishtaspa, who then had the prophet imprisoned. But, from prison, Zoroaster cured one of Vishtaspa's favourite horses (which had suddenly become paralyzed), for which the prophet then gained Vishtaspa's support and admiration. The tale is obliquely referred to in the ''Anthology of Zadspram'' (24. 6), which seems to presume that the reader already knows it, and it is summarized in the ''Denkard'' (7. 4. 64–86), and – as "workings of popular fancy" – described in detail in the later ''Book of Zoroaster'' (942–1094). In the myth, Zoroaster cures each of the horse's four legs in exchange for four concessions: first, that Vishtaspa himself accept Zoroaster's message; secondly, that Vishtaspa's son Spentodata (MP: Esfandiar) do the same; third, that Vishtaspa's wife Hutaosa (MP: Hutos) also convert; and finally that the men who maligned Zoroaster be put to death. When these four wishes are granted, the horse stands up rejuvenated. Vishtaspa's conversion is traditionally said to have taken place during Zoroaster's forty-second year, "a figure undoubtedly reached by later calculation". This myth is tied to the

Sassanid The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the History of Iran, last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th cen ...

(early 3rd–early 7th century) claim of descent from Artaxerxes, and the claim of relationship to the Kayanids, that is, with Vishtaspa and his ancestors. The full adoption of Kayanid names, titles and myths from the Avesta by the Sassanids was a "main component of assanidideology. " The association of Artaxerxes with the Kayanids occurred through the identification of Artaxerxes II's title ('Mnemon' in Greek) with the name of Vishtaspa's legendary grandson and successor, Wahman: both are theophorics of Avestan Vohu Manah "Good Mind(ed)"; Middle Persian 'Wahman' is a contraction of the Avestan name, while Greek 'Mnemon' is a calque of it. The Sassanid association of their dynasty with Vishtaspa's is a development dated to the end of the 4th century, and which "arose to some extent because this was when the Sasanians conquered

Balkh ), named for its green-tiled ''Gonbad'' ( prs, گُنبَد, dome), in July 2001 , pushpin_map=Afghanistan#Bactria#West Asia , pushpin_relief=yes , pushpin_label_position=bottom , pushpin_mapsize=300 , pushpin_map_caption=Location in Afghanistan ...

, the birthplace of Vishtasp and the 'holy land' of Zoroastrianism. " As was also the case for the fourth century Roman identification of Zoroaster's patron with the late-6th century BCE father of

Darius I Darius I ( peo, 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 ; grc-gre, Δαρεῖος ; – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was a Persian ruler who served as the third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his ...

(see

) – the identification of Vishtaspa as a grandfather of "Ardashir" (Artaxerxes I/II) was once perceived to substantiate the "traditional date" of Zoroaster, which places the prophet in the 6th century BCE. The traditional descriptions of Vishtaspa's ancestors as having chariots (a description that puts them fully in the Bronze Age) also contribute to the academic debate on the dating of Zoroaster; for a summary of the role of Vishtaspa's ancestors in this issue, see .Additionally, and within the framework of the arguments that

Cyrus the Great Cyrus II of Persia (; peo, 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 ), commonly known as Cyrus the Great, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian empire. Schmitt Achaemenid dynasty (i. The clan and dynasty) Under his rule, the empire embraced ...

was a Zoroastrian, speculates that the reason why " yrus'name is never mentioned in the Pahlavi books or in the later royal genealogies" was because tradition identified Cyrus with Vishtaspa, with the use of Vishtaspa's name instead of Cyrus', thus leading to "complete oblivion for Cyrus in Zoroastrian tradition".

In the Sistan heroic cycle

Gushtasp Slays the Dragon of Mount Saqila, Folio from the Shahnameh (Book of Kings) of Shah Tahmasp

Non-Zoroastrian literature in

New Persian New Persian ( fa, فارسی نو), also known as Modern Persian () and Dari (), is the current stage of the Persian language spoken since the 8th to 9th centuries until now in Greater Iran and surroundings. It is conventionally divided into thr ...

and

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...

uniformly reflects the regular development of Middle Persian ''wi-'' into ''gu-'', with Middle Persian ''Wishtasp'' thus becoming ''Goshtasb'' in Sistan national history (''Tarikh-e Sistan''), ''Goshtasp'' in Firdausi's ''Book of Kings'' (''

Shahnameh The ''Shahnameh'' or ''Shahnama'' ( fa, شاهنامه, Šāhnāme, lit=The Book of Kings, ) is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 5 ...

''), ''Goshtasf'' in the ''Mojmal al-tawarikh'', ''Beshtashb'' by

Al-Tabari ( ar, أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير بن يزيد الطبري), more commonly known as al-Ṭabarī (), was a Muslim historian and scholar from Amol, Tabaristan. Among the most prominent figures of the Islamic Golden Age, al-Tabari ...

. In several respects, for instance in Goshtasb's/Goshtasf's (etc.) mythological genealogy, the Sistan cycle texts continue the Zoroastrian tradition. So, for example, Goshtasp is identified as a member of the

, is the son of Lohrasp/Lohrasb (etc.), is the brother of

Zareh Zareh ( hy, Զարեհ) is an Armenian masculine given name, derived from a legendary king mentioned in chapter 1.31 of Movses Khorenatsi's ''History of Armenia The history of Armenia covers the topics related to the history of the Republi ...

/Zarer (etc.), is the father of Esfandiar/Isfandiar (etc.) and Bashutan/ Beshotan (etc.), and so on. However, in the Sistan legends, Goshtasb/Goshtasf (etc.) is an abominable figure, altogether unlike the hero of Zoroastrian tradition. The reason for this discrepancy is unknown. According to the Sistan tradition, Goshtasb demands the throne from his father Lohrasp, but storms off to India ("Hind") when the king declines. Goshtasb's brother

(Zareh/Zarer etc., Avestan Zairivairi) is sent to fetch him, but Goshtasb flees to "

Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...

" where he marries Katayoun (Katayun/Katayoun etc.), the daughter of the ' qaysar'. Goshtasb subsequently becomes a military commander for the Roman emperor, and encourages the emperor to demand tribute from Iran. Again Zareh is sent to fetch Goshtasb, who is then promised the throne, and is thus persuaded to return. Back in Sistan, Goshtasb imprisons his own son Esfandiar (Esfandiar/Isfandiar etc., Avestan Spentodata), but then has to seek Esfandiar's help in defeating Arjasp (Avestan Aurvataspa) who is threatening

. Goshtasb promises Esfandiar the throne in return for his help, but when Esfandiar is successful, his father stalls and instead sends him off on another mission to suppress a rebellion in Turan. Esfandiar is again successful, and upon his return Goshtasb hedges once again and – aware of a prediction that foretells the death of Esfandiar at the hand of Rostam – sends him off on a mission in which Esfandiar is destined to die. In the ''Shahnameh'', the nobles upbraid Goshtasb as a disgrace to the throne; his daughters denounce him as a heinous criminal; and his younger son Bashutan (Avestan Peshotanu) condemns him as a wanton destroyer of Iran. As in Zoroastrian tradition, in the Sistan cycle texts Goshtasp is succeeded by Esfandiar's son,

Bahman Bahman ( fa, بهمن, ) is the eleventh and penultimate month of the Solar Hijri calendar, the official calendar of Iran and Afghanistan. Bahman has thirty days. It begins in January and ends in February of the Gregorian calendar. The month ...

(< MP Wahman). The identification of Bahman with 'Ardashir' (see above) reappears in the Sistan cycle texts as well.

In Greek and Roman thought

The name "Visthaspa" is "

Hystaspes Vishtaspa ( ae, 𐬬𐬌𐬱𐬙𐬁𐬯𐬞𐬀 ; peo, 𐎻𐏁𐎫𐎠𐎿𐎱, ), hellenized as Hystáspes (, ), may refer to: * Vishtaspa ( fl. between 10th and 6th century BCE, if historical), the first patron of Zoroaster * Hystaspes (fat ...

" in the Greek and Latin texts of the

Hellenistic era In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...

. Besides referring to historically attested persons named Vishtaspa, it was also applied to Zoroaster's patron, who the Greeks and Romans imagined to be a sage of great antiquity, and the putative author of a set of prophecies written under his name.For the primary sources, see . Although the works attributed to Pseudo-Hystaspes draw on real Zoroastrian sources, the Greek and Roman portraits of his person are just as fanciful as those of the other two ''les Mages hellénisés'', Pseudo-Zoroaster and Pseudo-Ostanes. While Pseudo-Zoroaster was identified as the "inventor" of astrology, and Pseudo-Ostanes was imagined to be a master sorcerer, Pseudo-Hystaspes seems to have been stereotyped as an apocalyptic prophet. None of the works attributed to him are still extant, but quotations and references have survived in the works of others, especially in those of two early Christian writers –

Justin Martyr Justin Martyr ( el, Ἰουστῖνος ὁ μάρτυς, Ioustinos ho martys; c. AD 100 – c. AD 165), also known as Justin the Philosopher, was an early Christian apologist and philosopher. Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and ...

(ca. 100-165 CE) in Samaria and the mid-3rd century

Lactantius Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius (c. 250 – c. 325) was an early Christian author who became an advisor to Roman emperor, Constantine I, guiding his Christian religious policy in its initial stages of emergence, and a tutor to his son Cri ...

in North Africa – who drew on them by way of confirmation that what themselves held to be revealed truth had already been uttered.. Only one of these

pseudepigraphic Pseudepigrapha (also anglicized as "pseudepigraph" or "pseudepigraphs") are falsely attributed works, texts whose claimed author is not the true author, or a work whose real author attributed it to a figure of the past.Bauckham, Richard; "Pseu ...

works – referred to as the ''Book of Hystaspes'' or the ''Oracles of Hystaspes'' or just ''Hystaspes'' – is known by name. This work (or set of works) of the first century BCE is referred to by Lactantius, Justin Martyr,

Clement of Alexandria Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria ( grc , Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; – ), was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen ...

Lydus Lydus ( Ancient Greek: Λυδός), a son of Atys and Callithea, grandson of Manes, and brother of Tyrrhenus or Torybus, is a legendary figure of the 2nd millennium BC who is attested by Herodotus to have been an early king of Lydia, then prob ...

, and Aristokritos, all of whom describe it as foretelling the downfall of the

Roman empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...

, the return of rule to the east, and of the coming of the saviour. Lactantius provides a detailed summary of the ''Oracles of Hystaspes'' in his ''Divinae Institutiones'' (Book VII, from the end of chapter 15 through chapter 19). It begins with Hystaspes awaking from a dream, and needing to have it interpreted for him. This is duly accomplished by a young boy, "here representing, according to convention, the openness of youth and innocent to divine visitations. ". As interpreted by the boy, the dream "predicts" the iniquity of the last age, and the impending destruction of the wicked by fire. The divine fire will burn both the righteous and the wicked, but only the wicked will be hurt and neither will be destroyed. During the eschatological inferno, the "followers of truth" will separate themselves from the wicked and ascend a mountain. The evil king who dominates the world will be angered on hearing this, and he will resolve to encircle the mountain with his army. The righteous implore to "Jupiter", who sends them a saviour, who will descend from heaven accompanied by angels and before him a flaming sword. Hystaspes "prophesies" that the wicked king (i.e. the Roman emperor) will survive the destruction of his armies, but will lose power. It was "presumably" the prophecy of the destruction of a victorious power (i.e. the Roman empire) that caused the work to be proscribed by Rome; according to Justin Martyr (''Apologia'', I. 44. 12), reading the work was punishable by death. Unlike the works attributed to the other two ''les Mages hellénisés'', the ''Oracles of Hystaspes'' was apparently based on the genuine Zoroastrian myths, and "the argument for ultimate magian composition is a strong one. ..As prophecies they have a political context, a function, and a focus which radically distinguish them from the philosophical and encyclopedic wisdom of the other pseudepigrapha. " Although " ophecies of woes and iniquities in the last age are alien to orthodox Zoroastrianism", there was probably a growth of Zoroastrian literature in the late fourth-early third centuries denouncing the evils of the Hellenistic age, and offering hope of the coming kingdom of Ahura Mazda.. The Greco-Roman obsession with Zoroaster as the "inventor" of astrology also influenced the image of Hystaspes. So for example in

' ''On the months'' (''de Mensibus'' II. 4), which credits "the

Chaldea Chaldea () was a small country that existed between the late 10th or early 9th and mid-6th centuries BCE, after which the country and its people were absorbed and assimilated into the indigenous population of Babylonia. Semitic-speaking, it was ...

ns in the circle of Zoroaster and Hystaspes and the Egyptians" for the creation of the seven-day week after the number of planets.''cf. '' . The sixth century Agathias was more ambivalent, observing that it wasn't clear to him whether the name of Zoroaster's patron referred to the father of Darius or to another Hystaspes (ii. 24). As with the medieval Zoroastrian chronology that identifies Vishtaspa with "Ardashir" (see above), Ammianus' identification was once considered to substantiate the "traditional date" of Zoroaster.

Notes

References

Sources

* . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * * . * . * . * * . * . * {{Authority control Kayanians Shahnameh characters History of Zoroastrianism