{{Campaignbox Three Kingdoms Tufa Shujineng's Rebellion, also known as the Qin and Liang Provinces Rebellion (

Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...

: 秦涼之變), was a tribal rebellion against the

Western Jin dynasty Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...

from 270 to 279 during the

Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty and wa ...

period. It was led by the

Xianbei The Xianbei (; ) were a Proto-Mongolic ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. They originated from the Donghu people who splintered into the ...

chieftain

Tufa Shujineng Tufa Shujineng (died 279) was a Qiang (historical people), Qiang-Xianbei chieftain who lived during the Three Kingdoms period of China. As the leader of the Tufa tribe in Hexi Corridor, Hexi, he led a rebellion against the ruling Jin dynasty (26 ...

, who was joined by several tribal ethnic groups such as the Qiang and Di living in northwestern China. The rebellion lasted nearly a decade and reached its peak in 279 when rebel forces captured

Liang province Liang Province or Liangzhou () was a province in the northwest of ancient China, in the approximate location of the modern-day province of Gansu. It was bordered in the east by Sili Province. History Establishment The province was first con ...

. However, that same year would also see its end as Jin forces decisively defeated Shujineng and pacified the tribes.

Background

During the

, northwestern China was home to many tribal ethnic groups. The neighbouring Qiang people to the west had been migrating inwards into the Longxi and

Guanzhong Guanzhong (, formerly romanised as Kwanchung) region, also known as the Guanzhong Basin, Wei River Basin, or uncommonly as the Shaanzhong region, is a historical region of China corresponding to the crescentic graben basin within present-day ce ...

regions as early as the

Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...

, where they would often rebel due to oppressive policies by the local Han governors. The immigration of tribal people was further encouraged during the fall of Han and

period as manpower was needed for labour and war. The Han chancellor,

Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...

relocated around 50,000 Di people from Wudu Commandery to the Guanzhong region in 219. Sometime between 256 and 263, the

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

general,

Deng Ai Deng Ai (197 – late March 264Vol.04 of ''Sanguozhi'' and vol.02 of ''Jin Shu'' both indicated that Deng Ai was arrested in the 1st month of the 1st year of the ''Xianxi'' era. The month corresponds to 15 Feb to 14 Mar 264 in the Julian calendar ...

received the surrender of tens of thousands of

people from the

Hexi Corridor The Hexi Corridor (, Xiao'erjing: حْسِ ظِوْلاْ, IPA: ), also known as the Gansu Corridor, is an important historical region located in the modern western Gansu province of China. It refers to a narrow stretch of traversable and relativ ...

, resettling them in the areas between Liang and Yong provinces. In 268, parts of northern China were hit by floods and droughts, and the minister,

Fu Xuan Fu Xuan (217–278), courtesy name Xiuyi, was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician who lived in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period and later under the Jin dynasty. He was one of the most prolific authors of ''fu'' poet ...

feared that the tribes in the northwest, particularly the Xianbei, would rebel. He proposed that the Inspector of Qin province,

Hu Lie HU or Hu may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Hu Sanniang, a fictional character in the ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature * Tian Hu, one of the antagonists in the ''Water Margin'' * Hollywood Unde ...

be tasked in quelling a future revolt due to his reputation in the west. He was concerned that even if Hu Lie defeated the rebels, they could easily escape to the commanderies of Anding or Wuwei (武威郡; in present-day

Jingyuan County, Gansu Jingyuan County () is a county in the east of Gansu Province. It is under the administration of Baiyin City, and consists of two separate tracts of territory to the north and south of Pingchuan District. The northern tract borders Ningxia to the n ...

), so he also suggested setting up a new commandery around Gaopingchuan (高平川; in present-day

Guyuan (), formerly known as Xihaigu (, Xiao'erjing: قُ‌يُوًا شِ), is a prefecture-level city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. It occupies the southernmost section of the region, bordering Gansu provin ...

Ningxia Ningxia (,; , ; alternately romanized as Ninghsia), officially the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR), is an autonomous region in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Formerly a province, Ningxia was incorporated into Gansu in ...

), where settlers will be recruited and supplemented with

corvée Corvée () is a form of unpaid, forced labour, that is intermittent in nature lasting for limited periods of time: typically for only a certain number of days' work each year. Statute labour is a corvée imposed by a state for the purposes of ...

exemptions. The commandery, along with Anding and Wuwei, would be transferred to Qin under Hu Lie. Fu Xuan also suggested opening a new northbound passage to encourage migration and gradually strengthen their hold on the border. However, one minister, Chen Qian warned against appointing Hu Lie and another general, Qian Hong, as provincial inspectors. He argued that while the two were strong generals, they were both tactless and not suited to maintain order around the borders. However, his advice was ignored.

The rebellion

Early rebel success

A rebellion soon broke out in Qin in June or July 270 after Hu Lie lost the support of the tribes. The rebellion's leader was Tufa Shujineng, the chieftain of the Tufa-Xianbei tribe from Hexi. Although Shujineng was a Xianbei, historical records indicate that the rebellion consisted of various different tribal people, with the rebels being collectively referred to as "Qiang" or "Di". Hu Lie led his troops and camped at Wanhu Mound (萬斛堆; located in

Gaolan County Gaolan County () is a county of Gansu Province, China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Lanzhou, the capital of Gansu, one of 58 counties of Gansu. Its postal code is 730200, and its population in 2019 was 147,000 pe ...

Gansu Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibet ...

) to campaign against Shujineng. However, Shujineng and the chieftains, Baihuwen (白虎文) and Yaolanni (藥蘭泥), surrounded Hu Lie's army and killed him.(一曰，昔歲及此年，藥蘭泥、白虎文秦涼殺刺史胡烈、牽弘，遣田璋討泥。) ''Song Shu'', vol.33 The Prince of Fufeng,

Sima Liang Sima Liang (司馬亮) (before 227- 25 July 291), courtesy name Ziyi (子翼), formally Prince Wencheng of Ru'nan (汝南文成王), was briefly a regent during the reign of Emperor Hui during Jin Dynasty (266–420). He was the first of the ei ...

, was supposed to send reinforcements to help Hu Lie through his subordinates Liu Qi (劉旂) and Jing Yan (敬琰), but the two refused to move their troops.

Emperor Wu of Jin Emperor Wu of Jin (; 236 – 16 May 290), personal name Sima Yan (), courtesy name Anshi (安世), was the grandson of Sima Yi, nephew of Sima Shi and son of Sima Zhao. He became the first emperor of the Jin dynasty after forcing Cao Huan, ...

wanted to punish Liu Qi, but Sima Liang defended him and lost his post in the process. Later, the Inspector of Liang,

Su Yu Su Yu (; August 10, 1907 – February 5, 1984), Courtesy name Yu (裕) was a Chinese military commander, a general of the People's Liberation Army. He was considered by Mao Zedong to be among the best commanders of the PLA, only next to P ...

, led forces who were also routed by Shujineng at Mount Jin (金山; located in

Shandan county Shandan County () is a county in Gansu Province, the People's Republic of China, bordering Inner Mongolia to the north. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zhangye. It is an important site located on the ancient Silk ...

, Gansu). With the removal of Sima Liang, Emperor Wu sent the General Who Maintains the West, Shi Jian (石鑒) and Protector-General of Vehement Might, Tian Zheng (田章) to put down the revolt. Shi Jian ordered his subordinate,

Du Yu Du Yu (223– January or February 285), courtesy name Yuankai, was a Chinese classicist, military general, and politician of the state of Cao Wei during the late Three Kingdoms period and early Jin dynasty. Life Du Yu was from Duling County ( ...

, to attack Shujineng. However, Du Yu remonstrated with him, stating that the enemies were still in high spirits after their recent victories, as opposed to the demoralized Jin troops. He instead suggested that they wait until the following spring to attack, building up strength and storing up grains in the meantime. Shi Jian thought that Du Yu was trying to jeopardize the campaign, so he had Du Yu sent back to

Luoyang Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River (Henan), Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the ...

in a prison cart for him to face the Minister of Justice. Shi Jian then carried out his original plans, but he could not defeat Shujineng. In September 270, Sima Jun was appointed Grand General Who Guards The West and Chief Controller of Yong, Liang and the other western provinces, and he was tasked in protecting the

. In April or May 271, Shujineng was joined by the tribes of

Beidi The Di or Beidi (Northern Di) were various ethnic groups who lived north of the Chinese (''Huaxia'') realms during the Zhou dynasty. Although initially described as nomadic, they seem to have practiced a mixed pastoral, agricultural, and hunting ...

(北地; in present-day

Qingyang Qingyang () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Gansu province, China. Geography and climate Qingyang is the easternmost prefecture-level division of Gansu and is thus sometimes referred to as "Longdong" (). It forms an administrative penins ...

, Gansu) in his invasion of Jincheng (金城; around present-day

Yuzhong County Yuzhong County () is a county of Gansu Province, China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Lanzhou, the capital of Gansu, one of 58 counties of Gansu. Its postal code is 730100, and its population in 2019 was 560,000 ...

, Gansu). The Inspector of Liang, Qian Hong, led his troops to fight Shujineng's forces, but the Qiang troops within Qian's army, dissatisfied by his mistreatment of them, rebelled and join Shujineng. Shujineng, Baihuwen and Yaolanni defeated and killed Qian Hong at Mount Qing (青山; located in

Huan county Huan County or Huanxian () is an administrative district in eastern Gansu province, China at the junction of three provinces: Gansu, Shaanxi to the northeast, and Ningxia to the west and northwest. It is under the administration of the prefecture- ...

, Gansu) after surrounding his army. Yang Xin was then made the new Inspector of Liang. In 272, the Administrator of

Dunhuang Dunhuang () is a county-level city in Northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Dunhuang was a major ...

, Yin Qu (尹璩), died. Yang Xin petitioned that the Prefect of Dunhuang, Liang Cheng (梁澄), succeed to Yin Qu's office. However, an Officer of Merit, Song Zhi (宋質), deposed Liang Cheng and replaced him with the Consultant, Linghu Feng (令狐豐). Yang Xin led his soldiers to campaign against Linghu Feng, but he was defeated by Song Zhi's army. Previously, Deng Ai had repaired

parapets A parapet is a barrier that is an extension of the wall at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony, walkway or other structure. The word comes ultimately from the Italian ''parapetto'' (''parare'' 'to cover/defend' and ''petto'' 'chest/breast'). Wher ...

and built many forts in Liang and Yong provinces for defensive purposes during his time. After Shujineng's rebellion broke out, many officials and local residents took refuge in these forts.

Reactions in Jin court

The rebellion in Qin and Liang caused much worry for Emperor Wu. In 271, two of his ministers, Ren Kai (任愷) and Yu Chun (庾純), attempted to undermine their political enemy,

Jia Chong Jia Chong (217–19 May 282), courtesy name Gonglü, was a Chinese politician who lived during the late Three Kingdoms period and early Jin dynasty of China. He started his career as an advisor to Sima Shi and Sima Zhao, the regents of the ...

, by recommending to Emperor Wu that he be sent to lead the fight against Shujineng. Emperor Wu agreed and even issued an edict appointing Jia Chong to the necessary positions. Jia Chong was distressed by Emperor Wu's decision, but with Xun Xu's help, he was able to remain in Luoyang after securing a marriage between his daughter,

Jia Nanfeng Jia Nanfeng (257 – 13 May 300), nicknamed Shi (峕), was a Chinese empress consort. She was the daughter of Jia Chong and first wife of Emperor Hui of the Jin dynasty and also the granddaughter of Jia Kui. She is commonly seen as a villaino ...

, and Emperor Wu's heir,

Sima Zhong Emperor Hui of Jin (; 260 - January 8, 307), personal name Sima Zhong (司馬衷), courtesy name Zhengdu (正度), was the second emperor of the Jin dynasty (266–420). Emperor Hui was a developmental disability, developmentally disabled ruler, a ...

. When the general,

Yang Hu Yang Hu (羊祜, 221 – 27 December 278), courtesy name Shuzi, was Chinese military general and politician who lived during the Jin dynasty of China. His advocacy for plans to conquer the rival state of Eastern Wu finally persuaded Emperor Wu ...

, submitted his petition advocating for the invasion of Jin's rival state,

Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <

Eastern Han Chinese

: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...

, he was strongly opposed by many other ministers, who argued that quelling the rebellion in Qin and Liang should be of greater priority.

Jin counterattack

After the failed attempts at quelling the rebellion, Sima Jun focused his soldiers on agriculture in Guanzhong. In 274, rebels from Liang attacked Jincheng again, but Sima Jun defeated them and killed one of their leaders, Qiwenni (乞文泥). In 275, he campaigned against Shujineng and defeated his forces, killing 3,000 rebels. Later that year, when Sima Jun was ordered to lead 7,000 soldiers to strengthen the garrison in Liang, Shujineng, Houdanbo (侯彈勃) and their followers planned to raid the military-agricultural colonies in Guanzhong in his absence. However, his subordinate, Wen Yang, led a combined force from Liang, Qin and Yong to threaten the rebels. Shujineng sent Houdanbo and twenty tribesmen to submit to Jin, each sending their sons as hostages. Wen Yang also received the surrender of 200,000 tribal people from Anding, Beidi and Jincheng including the chieftains Jikeluo (吉軻羅), Houjinduo (侯金多) and Rejiong (熱冏). Meanwhile, the Wu and Ji Colonel, Ma Xun (馬循), who was based in the

Western Regions The Western Regions or Xiyu (Hsi-yü; ) was a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD that referred to the regions west of Yumen Pass, most often Central Asia or sometimes more spe ...

, campaigned against Xianbei rebels and killed their leader. In 276, Linghu Feng died and was succeeded by his younger brother, Linghu Hong (令狐宏). Yang Xin launched another attack on Dunhuang, and this time, he killed Linghu Hong and recaptured the commandery. Afterwards, Sima Jun campaigned against the northern Hu (北胡) and killed one of their leaders, Tudun (吐敦). Later, a Xianbei leader, Aluoduo (阿羅多) attacked the Jin border. Ma Xun commanded his troops to defeat him, killing 4,000 and capturing 9,000 of them, which prompted Aluoduo to surrender. Near the end of the year, Sima Jun was promoted to Senior General Who Attacks the West.

Battle of Liang Province

Fall of Liang province

Peace between Jin and Shujineng did not last, as Shujineng and the tribes revolted again in 277. He initially suffered another defeat to Wen Yang, but later that year, Sima Jun was recalled to the capital and replaced with Sima Tai (司馬泰) in Guanzhong. By 278, Yang Xin would also lose the tribes' support. That year, he fought with Ruoluobaneng (若羅拔能) and others on the Dang Ranges (丹嶺) in Wuwei, but was defeated and beheaded. As Shujineng continued to harass Jin's borders, the Jin minister Li Xi (李憙) suggested that they send an army to defeat Shujineng, but the emperor's advisers disagreed, believing the situation was not as serious as Li thought. However, by the beginning of 279, Shujineng captured Liang. Emperor Wu regretted the situation to the point that records claim he was unable to eat until late in the evening.

Jin preparations

The emperor's advisers initially considered sending the Jin general of

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...

ethnicity, Liu Yuan, to recapture the province, but decided not to out of fear that he would also rebel. Instead, a junior Jin general by the name of Ma Long volunteered to lead a Jin army and defeat Shujineng. Emperor Wu agreed and appointed him Protector-General Who Campaigns Against The Caitiffs and Administrator of Wuwei, despite objections from his minister. Before the campaign, Ma Long sought out around 3,000 strong men who were able to draw bows that were four '' jun''s (approx. 26 kilograms) and use ' waist-spun crossbows' (腰引弩) that were 36 ''jun''s (approx. 238 kilograms). In the end, he was able to find 3,500 men, and he had them practice their accuracy by shooting targets. Ma Long then requested and received fresh military supplies that would last him up to three years.

Ma Long's tactics

In November 279, Ma Long set out west to fight the rebels. After the Jin troops crossed the Wen River (溫水; east of present-day

), Shujineng responded by having tens of thousands of his rebels occupy the passes to block Ma Long's front, while the others set up ambushes to intercept his rear. During his battles with Shujineng, Ma Long employed a number of unorthodox tactics. In accordance with Zhuge Liang's 'Eightfold Battle Formations' (八陣圖), Ma Long built ‘flat box carts’ (偏箱車; a cart with a board on one side which acts like a shield) for his soldiers to use. When fighting in the open, he employed 'deer-antlered carts' (鹿角車; a cart with spears and halberds on the front, giving it an antler-like shape), and when passing through narrow roads, he built wooden roofs over the carts. His soldiers were able to move while fighting, and the enemy arrows were unable to hit them. More questionably, another tactic that Ma Long used was placing down large amounts of ' magnetic stones' on the ground to slow down the enemy advances, the reason being that the rebels and their horses often wore iron armor while his men wore armor made of rhinoceros hides. The rebels were taken by surprise and thought the Jin soldiers were divine beings.

End of the rebellion

While Ma Long fought in the west, a rumour began circulating in the court that he and his men had been cut off, but it was quickly dispelled after his messenger arrived at the court. Emperor Wu was pleased with Ma Long and further appointed him General Who Exhibits Might. As Ma Long marched to Wuwei, his troops killed and injured many of the rebels. After reaching Wuwei, Shujineng's allied chieftains, Cubahan (猝跋韓) and Zuwanneng (且萬能), surrendered to him along with ten thousand troops under them. In December 279, Ma Long, with the help of Meiguneng (沒骨能) and other friendly tribal leaders, won a great battle over Shujineng and killed him. Another account states that after Shujineng was defeated, he was assassinated by his subordinates, who then submitted to Ma Long.(樹機能後為馬隆所敗，部下殺之以降。) ''Jin Shu'', vol.126 Tufa Shujineng's rebellion was at its end.

Aftermath

As Shujineng's defeat became assured, Emperor Wu began his conquest of Wu one month before the rebellion was quelled and unified China in May 280. Shujineng's cousin, Tufa Wuwan (禿髮務丸), was installed as the new chieftain of the Tufa. Despite their victories, Shujineng's rebellion, along with a

revolt in

Bing province Bingzhou, or Bing Province, was a location in ancient China. According to legend, when Yu the Great (c. 2200 BC-2100 BC) tamed the flood, he divided the land of China into the Nine Provinces. Historical texts such as the '' Rites of Zhou'', and "T ...

led by Liu Meng in 272, raised concerns among a few ministers regarding the tribal peoples living in the Chinese interior. After the conquest, the minister, Guo Qin (郭欽) sent a petition to the court calling for the tribes to be relocated outside the border, but was rejected. For the remainder of Emperor Wu's reign, the northwest remained mostly in peace. However, in 296, due to poor governance, the tribes, led by the Di chieftain,

Qi Wannian Qi Wannian (died 299), or Qiwannian, was an ethnic Di chieftain and rebel leader during the Western Jin dynasty of China. In 296, he became leader of a tribal uprising against Jin in Qinzhou and Yongzhou that lasted until 299. The rebellion ...

, once again rebelled in Guanzhong, this time with more dire consequences that contributed towards the

upheaval of the Five Barbarians The Upheaval of the Five Barbarians also translated as the Rebellion, the Revolt, or the Invasion of the Five Barbarians () is a Chinese expression which refers to a series of rebellions and invasions between 304 and 316 by non- Han peoples, comm ...

. Jia Nanfeng and Sima Zhong's marriage, prompted by Shujineng's rebellion, also laid the seeds for the

War of the Eight Princes The War of the Eight Princes, Rebellion of the Eight Kings, or Rebellion of the Eight Princes () was a series of civil wars among kings/princes (Chinese: ''wáng'' 王) of the Chinese Jin dynasty from 291 to 306 AD. The key point of contention in ...

References

* Fang, Xuanling (ed.) (648). ''

Book of Jin The ''Book of Jin'' is an official Chinese historical text covering the history of the Jin dynasty from 266 to 420. It was compiled in 648 by a number of officials commissioned by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty, with chancellor Fang X ...

'' (''Jin Shu''). * Sima, Guang (1084). ''

Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynast ...

''. * Shen, Yue (493 ). ''

Book of Song The ''Book of Song'' (''Sòng Shū'') is a historical text of the Liu Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties of China. It covers history from 420 to 479, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories, a traditional collection of historical records. I ...

'' (''Song Shu''). 270s conflicts Campaigns of the Three Kingdoms 3rd-century rebellions Rebellions in China