The Trail of Blood on Ice was a December 1861 campaign in the
American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states th ...
in which pro-Union Native Americans, led by Upper Creek Chief
Opothleyahola
Opothleyahola, also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, Hopoeitheyohola, and Hopere Yahvlv (c. 1778 – March 22, 1863) was a Muscogee Creek Indian chief, noted as a brilliant orator. He was a Speaker of the Upper Cre ...
, fought their way north from Indian Territory (then under
Confederate
Confederacy or confederate may refer to:
States or communities
* Confederate state or confederation, a union of sovereign groups or communities
* Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between 1 ...
control) to
Fort Row Fort Row, located on the south bank of the Verdigris River and east of the present town of Coyville, Kansas, was built in the fall of 1861, probably in October. It was built by the local mounted militia for their use. However, the fort became asso ...
,
Kansas
Kansas () is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the ...
. They faced continuing attacks from Confederate forces under Col.
Douglas H. Cooper
Douglas Hancock Cooper (November 1, 1815 – April 29, 1879) was an American politician, soldier, Indian Agent in what is now Oklahoma, and Confederate States Army, Confederate general during the American Civil War.
Early life and career
Cooper ...
.
Background
With the
secession
Secession is the withdrawal of a group from a larger entity, especially a political entity, but also from any organization, union or military alliance. Some of the most famous and significant secessions have been: the former Soviet republics le ...
of eleven Southern states in 1861, both the
Union (American Civil War)
During the American Civil War, the Union, also known as the North, referred to the United States led by President Abraham Lincoln. It was opposed by the secessionist Confederate States of America (CSA), informally called "the Confederacy" or "t ...
and the
Confederate States of America
The Confederate States of America (CSA), commonly referred to as the Confederate States or the Confederacy was an unrecognized breakaway republic in the Southern United States that existed from February 8, 1861, to May 9, 1865. The Confeder ...
vied for control of the
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United St ...
.
Old tribal rivalries were renewed, with some aligning with the North and others with the South.
When a Confederate force under Col. Douglas H. Cooper attacked Unionist tribes in the Indian Territory, Upper Creek Chief
Opothleyahola
Opothleyahola, also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, Hopoeitheyohola, and Hopere Yahvlv (c. 1778 – March 22, 1863) was a Muscogee Creek Indian chief, noted as a brilliant orator. He was a Speaker of the Upper Cre ...
resisted and led Unionist Creek and Seminole from
McIntosh County, Oklahoma
McIntosh County is a county located in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. As of the 2010 census, the population was 20,252. Its county seat is Eufaula. The county is named for an influential Muscogee Creek family, whose members led the migration of ...
north to
Fort Row Fort Row, located on the south bank of the Verdigris River and east of the present town of Coyville, Kansas, was built in the fall of 1861, probably in October. It was built by the local mounted militia for their use. However, the fort became asso ...
,
Kansas
Kansas () is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the ...
. These Indian warriors fought Cooper in a series of battles in the winter of 1861–62. They withdrew to Kansas in a bitterly harsh trek known as the "Trail of Blood on Ice."
Battle of Round Mountain
The first engagement, the
Battle of Round Mountain
The Battle of Round Mountain was the first battle in the Trail of Blood on Ice campaign for the control of Indian Territory during the American Civil War that occurred on November 19, 1861. Its main purpose was to prevent Union supporters of t ...
occurred on November 19, 1861 near the Red Fork of the Arkansas River. The actual location is in dispute as some historians believe it to be near Keystone, while others believe it to be near
Yale, Oklahoma
Yale is a city in Payne County, Oklahoma, United States. The population was 1,059 at the 2020 census, a decline of 13.6 percent from the figure of 1,227 in 2010.
History
Yale's founding in 1895 is attributed to a local farmer, Sterling F. Under ...
. The evidence slightly favors the site near Yale, known as Twin Mounds.
Cooper's men arrived there around 4:00 p.m. Charging cavalry discovered that Opothleyahola's followers had recently abandoned their camp. The Confederates located and followed stragglers; the 4th Texas blundered into Opothleyahola's warriors on the
tree line
The tree line is the edge of the habitat at which trees are capable of growing. It is found at high elevations and high latitudes. Beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions (usually cold temperatures, extreme snowp ...
at the foot of the Round Mountains. The Federal response chased the Confederate cavalry back to Cooper's main force. Darkness prevented Cooper's counterattack until the main enemy force was within 60 yards. After a short fight, Opothleyahola's men set fire to the prairie grass and retreated.
Battle of Chusto-Talasah
The second engagement, the
Battle of Chusto-Talasah
The Battle of Chusto-Talasah, also known as Bird Creek, Caving Banks, and High Shoal, was fought December 9, 1861, in what is now Tulsa County, Oklahoma (then Indian Territory) during the American Civil War. It was the second of three battl ...
also known as "Caving Banks," was fought on December 9, 1861 near
Sperry, Oklahoma
Sperry is a town in Tulsa County, Oklahoma, United States. The population was 1,205 in the 2010 U. S. census, compared to 1,351 in 2000. It is primarily a bedroom community, since approximately 85 percent of the employed residents commute to wor ...
. For almost four hours, Cooper attacked and attempted to outflank the Federals, finally driving them east across Bird Creek just before dark. Cooper camped there overnight but did not pursue the Federals because he was short of ammunition. The Confederates claimed victory. Chief Opothleyahola and his band moved off in search of security elsewhere. Their loss was estimated by Cooper as 500 (some accounts suggest 412). Confederate casualties were 15 killed and 37 wounded.
Battle of Chustenahlah
The third and final engagement, the
Battle of Chustenahlah
The Battle of Chustenahlah was fought in Osage County, Oklahoma, (then Indian Territory) on December 26, 1861, during the American Civil War. A band of 9,000 pro-Union Native Americans was forced to flee to Kansas in bitter cold and snow in wh ...
occurred on December 26, 1861 near
Skiatook, Oklahoma
Skiatook (Skī·ǎ·tōōk ''or'' Skī·ǎ·tǒǒk versus Skī·tōōk ''or'' Skī·tǒǒk) is a city in Osage and Tulsa counties in the U.S. state of Oklahoma located in the northeastern part of the state, approximately 20 miles north and wes ...
.
Colonel
Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
s
James M. McIntosh and Cooper planned a combined attack with each of their columns moving on the camp from different directions. McIntosh left
Fort Gibson
Fort Gibson is a historic military site next to the modern city of Fort Gibson, in Muskogee County Oklahoma. It guarded the American frontier in Indian Territory from 1824 to 1888. When it was constructed, the fort was farther west than any ot ...
on December 22, with 1,380 men.
On December 25, he was informed that Cooper's force could not join him for a while, but he decided to attack the next day, despite being outnumbered and severe cold weather conditions. McIntosh assaulted the camp at noon. The 1,700 pro-Union defenders were secluded in the underbrush along the slope of a rugged hill. McIntosh devised a plan to converge on the crest, with the South Kansas-Texas Cavalry (also known as the 3rd Texas) ordered to charge directly up the steep bluff on foot. The 11th Texas advanced to their left using a defile for concealment, while the 6th Texas circled to the right. As the Confederate attack progressed, the Native Americans began to fall back, taking cover for a while and then moving back. The retreat became a rout as the Federals reached their camp. The Indians attempted to make a stand there but were forced away again by 4:00 p.m. The survivors fled; many went all the way to Kansas where they found loyal Unionists. Three hundred Cherokees under Col.
Stand Watie
Brigadier-General Stand Watie ( chr, ᏕᎦᏔᎦ, translit=Degataga, lit=Stand firm; December 12, 1806September 9, 1871), also known as Standhope Uwatie, Tawkertawker, and Isaac S. Watie, was a Cherokee politician who served as the second princ ...
intercepted the fleeing Creeks and Seminoles, killing 15 of them.
Sonuk Mikko's band of
Seminole
The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, an ...
Indians covered the rear after the battle against Cherokee chief Stand Watie.
Aftermath
Chief Opothleyahola's band mounted no further resistance, and nearly 2,000 of them died on or shortly after the trek to
Fort Row Fort Row, located on the south bank of the Verdigris River and east of the present town of Coyville, Kansas, was built in the fall of 1861, probably in October. It was built by the local mounted militia for their use. However, the fort became asso ...
, Kansas, mostly due to exposure and disease.
On this date in Civil War history: December 26, 1861 - Battle of Chustenahlah (150th Anniversary)
/ref> Survivors eventually settled near Fort Belmont, where more members died of exposure and starvation during the winter. Many made their way to other parts of eastern Kansas like LeRoy's post and formed the First Indian Home Guard.
References
{{Reflist
External links
Creek Indians in the American Civil War
Douglas Hancock Cooper Biography
Campaigns of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War
1861 in Indian Territory
Military operations of the American Civil War in Indian Territory