Traditional grammar (also known as classical grammar) is a framework for the description of the structure of a
language
Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of ...
. The roots of traditional grammar are in the work of classical
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
philologists
Philology () is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined ...
. The formal study of
grammar
In linguistics, the grammar of a natural language is its set of structure, structural constraints on speakers' or writers' composition of clause (linguistics), clauses, phrases, and words. The term can also refer to the study of such constraint ...
based on these models became popular during the Renaissance.
Traditional grammars may be contrasted with more modern theories of grammar in
theoretical linguistics
Theoretical linguistics is a term in linguistics which, like the related term general linguistics, can be understood in different ways. Both can be taken as a reference to theory of language, or the branch of linguistics which inquires into the ...
, which grew out of traditional descriptions.
While traditional grammars seek to describe how particular languages are used, or to teach people to speak or read them,
grammar frameworks in contemporary linguistics often seek to explain the nature of language knowledge and ability. Traditional grammar is often
prescriptive, and may be regarded as unscientific by those working in linguistics.
Traditional Western grammars classify words into
parts of speech. They describe the patterns for word
inflection
In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and ...
, and the rules of
syntax by which those words are combined into sentences.
History
Among the earliest studies of grammar are descriptions of
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominalization, nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cul ...
, called . The Indian grammarian
Pāṇini wrote the , a
descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, sometime between the 4th and the 2nd century BCE.
This work, along with some grammars of Sanskrit produced around the same time, is often considered the beginning of
linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Lingu ...
as a
descriptive science,
and consequently wouldn't be considered "traditional grammar" despite its antiquity. Although Pāṇini's work was not known in Europe until many centuries later, it is thought to have greatly influenced other grammars produced in Asia, such as the , a
Tamil grammar generally dated between the 2nd and 1st century BCE.
The formal study of grammar became popular in Europe during the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass id ...
. Descriptive grammars were rarely used in
Classical Greece
Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years (the 5th and 4th centuries BC) in Ancient Greece,The "Classical Age" is "the modern designation of the period from about 500 B.C. to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C." (Thomas R. Martin ...
or in
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
through the
Medieval period.
During the Renaissance, Latin and
Classical Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...
were broadly studied along with the literature and philosophy written in those languages. With the invention of the
printing press
A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in which the ...
and the use of Vulgate Latin as a
lingua franca throughout Europe, the study of grammar became part of
language teaching and learning.
Although complete grammars were rare, Ancient Greek
philologist
Philology () is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined as ...
s and Latin teachers of
rhetoric
Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate par ...
produced some descriptions of the structure of language.
The descriptions produced by
classical grammarians (teachers of philology and rhetoric) provided a model for traditional grammars in Europe. According to linguist William Harris, "Just as the Renaissance confirmed Greco-Roman tastes in poetry, rhetoric and architecture, it established ancient Grammar, especially that which the Roman school-grammarians had developed by the 4th
entury CE as an inviolate system of logical expression."
The earliest descriptions of other European languages were modeled on grammars of Latin. The primacy of Latin in traditional grammar persisted until the beginning of the 20th century.
The use of grammar descriptions in the teaching of language, including
foreign language teaching and the study of
language arts, has gone in and out of fashion.
As education increasingly took place in
vernacular
A vernacular or vernacular language is in contrast with a "standard language". It refers to the language or dialect that is spoken by people that are inhabiting a particular country or region. The vernacular is typically the native language, n ...
languages at the close of the Renaissance, grammars of these languages were produced for teaching. Between 1801 and 1900 there were more than 850 grammars of
English published specifically for use in schools. Mastering grammar rules like those derived from the study of Latin has at times been a specific goal of English-language education. This approach to teaching has, however, long competed with approaches that downplay the importance of grammar instruction. Similarly in foreign or
second language
A person's second language, or L2, is a language that is not the native language ( first language or L1) of the speaker, but is learned later. A second language may be a neighbouring language, another language of the speaker's home country, or a ...
teaching, the
grammar-translation method based on traditional Latin teaching, in which the grammar of the language being learned is described in the student's native language, has competed with approaches such as the
direct method or the
communicative approach, in which grammar instruction is minimized.
Parts of speech
The parts of speech are an important element of traditional grammars, since patterns of
inflection
In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and ...
and rules of
syntax each depend on a word's part of speech.
Although systems vary somewhat, typically traditional grammars name eight parts of speech:
noun
A noun () is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Example nouns for:
* Organism, Living creatures (including people ...
s,
pronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun ( abbreviated ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase.
Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would n ...
s,
adjective
In linguistics, an adjective ( abbreviated ) is a word that generally modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun.
Traditionally, adjectives were considered one of the ...
s,
verb
A verb () is a word ( part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descr ...
s,
adverb An adverb is a word or an expression that generally modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering q ...
s,
prepositions,
conjunctions
Conjunction may refer to:
* Conjunction (grammar), a part of speech
* Logical conjunction, a mathematical operator
** Conjunction introduction, a rule of inference of propositional logic
* Conjunction (astronomy)
In astronomy, a conjunction occ ...
, and
interjection
An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction. It is a diverse category, encompassing many different parts of speech, such as exclamations ''(ouch!'', ''wow!''), curse ...
s.
These groupings are based on categories of function and meaning in Latin and other
Indo-European languages
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, ...
. Some traditional grammars include other parts of speech, such as
articles
Article often refers to:
* Article (grammar), a grammatical element used to indicate definiteness or indefiniteness
* Article (publishing), a piece of nonfictional prose that is an independent part of a publication
Article may also refer to:
...
or
determiners, though some grammars treat other groupings of words as subcategories of the major parts of speech.
The traditional definitions of parts of speech refer to the role that a word plays in a sentence, its
meaning
Meaning most commonly refers to:
* Meaning (linguistics), meaning which is communicated through the use of language
* Meaning (philosophy), definition, elements, and types of meaning discussed in philosophy
* Meaning (non-linguistic), a general te ...
, or both.
*A noun is a name for something—whatever one wants to refer to in order to talk about it.
** A common noun refers to something abstract: a kind of object (''table, radio''), a kind of living thing (''cat, person''), a kind of place (''home, city''), a kind of action (''running, laughter, extinction''), a kind of attribute (''redness, size''), a kind of relationship (''closeness, partnership''), or anything at all, no matter how abstract (''two, god, diversity, corporation'').
** A proper noun refers to a specific thing (''
Jesse Owens, Felix the Cat, Pittsburgh, Zeus'').
*A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun (''she'' in place of her name).
* An adjective
modifies a noun or pronoun; it describes the thing referred to (''red'' in "My shirt is red" or "My red shirt is in the laundry.").
*A verb signifies the
predicate of the sentence. That is, a verb indicates what is being
asserted or
asked about the subject of the sentence (''is'' in "My shirt is red"; ''own'' in "I own this house"; ''ran'' in "Jesse Owens ran in the 1936 Olympics").
*An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, other adverbs, or the whole sentence (''happily'' in "People danced happily", "Happily, I was paid on time").
*A preposition indicates a relationship between a noun or pronoun, called the object of the preposition, and another part of the sentence. The other part of the sentence may be a noun or pronoun, a verb, or an adjective. (''in'' in "Jesse Owens ran in the 1936 Olympics"; ''on'' in "A store on Main St. sells antique chairs")
**The object of a preposition takes an oblique case (''me'' in "Amanda borrowed money from me"; see
Oblique case).
*A conjunction joins parts of sentences, such as nouns, verbs, or clauses, into larger units (''and'' in "
Mack Robinson and Jesse Owens ran in the 1936 Olympics"; ''because'' in "Amanda borrowed money from me because she needed to pay the rent").
*An interjection expresses
emotion
Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. ...
(''Ouch!'') or calls to someone (''Hey'' in "Hey, you!").
Contemporary linguists argue that classification based on a mixture of
morphosyntactic
In linguistics, morphology () is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Morph ...
function and
semantic meaning is insufficient for systematic analysis of grammar. Such definitions are not sufficient on their own to assign a word an unambiguous part of speech. Nonetheless, similar definitions have been used in most traditional grammars.
Accidence
Accidence, also known as inflection, is the change of a word's form depending on its grammatical function. The change may involve the addition of
affix
In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or inflectional, like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. They ...
es or else changes in the sounds of the word, known as vowel gradation or
ablaut
In linguistics, the Indo-European ablaut (, from German '' Ablaut'' ) is a system of apophony (regular vowel variations) in the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE).
An example of ablaut in English is the strong verb ''sing, sang, sung'' and i ...
.
Some words feature
irregular inflection
In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and definit ...
, not taking an affix or following a regular pattern of sound change.
Verbs, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives may be inflected for
person
A person (plural, : people) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of pr ...
,
number
A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers ...
, and
gender
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures us ...
.
The inflection of verbs is also known as
conjugation
Conjugation or conjugate may refer to:
Linguistics
*Grammatical conjugation, the modification of a verb from its basic form
* Emotive conjugation or Russell's conjugation, the use of loaded language
Mathematics
*Complex conjugation, the change ...
.
A verb has
person
A person (plural, : people) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of pr ...
and
number
A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers ...
, which must
agree with the subject of the sentence.
Verbs may also be inflected for
tense,
aspect,
mood
Mood may refer to:
*Mood (psychology), a relatively long lasting emotional state
Music
*The Mood, a British pop band from 1981 to 1984
* Mood (band), hip hop artists
* ''Mood'' (Jacquees album), 2016
* ''Moods'' (Barbara Mandrell album), 1978
...
, and
voice. Verb tense indicates the time that the sentence describes. A verb also has mood, indicating whether the sentence describes reality or expresses a command, a hypothesis, a hope, etc. A verb inflected for tense and mood is called finite; non-finite verb forms are
infinitive
Infinitive ( abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is de ...
s or
participle
In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb, nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a wo ...
s.
The voice of the verb indicates whether the subject of the sentence is
active or
passive in regard to the verb.
Number indicates whether the noun refers to one,
two, or
many
Many may refer to:
* grammatically plural in number
*an English quantifier used with count nouns indicating a large but indefinite number of; at any rate, more than a few
;Place names
* Many, Moselle, a commune of the Moselle department in Franc ...
instances of its kind.
Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives may also be inflected for
case
Case or CASE may refer to:
Containers
* Case (goods), a package of related merchandise
* Cartridge case or casing, a firearm cartridge component
* Bookcase, a piece of furniture used to store books
* Briefcase or attaché case, a narrow box to c ...
. The inflection of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives is also known as
declension
In linguistics, declension (verb: ''to decline'') is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection. Declensions may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and ...
.
Noun case indicates how the noun relates to other elements of the sentence (''I, me'' in "I see Jesse" and "Jesse sees me").
A traditional means of learning accidence is through conjugation tables or declension tables, lists of the various forms of a word for a learner to memorize. The following tables present partial conjugation of the Latin verb and its English equivalent, ''be''.
This partial table includes only two tenses (
present and
preterite
The preterite or preterit (; list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated or ) is a grammatical tense or verb form serving to denote events that took place or were completed in the past; in some languages, such as Spanish, French, and English, it ...
) and one mood (
indicative
A realis mood ( abbreviated ) is a grammatical mood which is used principally to indicate that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences. Mo ...
) in addition to the infinitive. A more complete conjugation table for Latin would also include the
subjunctive
The subjunctive (also known as conjunctive in some languages) is a grammatical mood, a feature of the utterance that indicates the speaker's attitude towards it. Subjunctive forms of verbs are typically used to express various states of unreality ...
and
imperative mood
The imperative mood is a grammatical mood that forms a command or request.
The imperative mood is used to demand or require that an action be performed. It is usually found only in the present tense, second person. To form the imperative mood, ...
s and the
imperfect indicative, which indicates
imperfective aspect.
In English the imperative often has the same form as the infinitive, while the
English subjunctive often has the same form as the indicative.
English does not have imperfective aspect as Latin does; it has
progressive
Progressive may refer to:
Politics
* Progressivism, a political philosophy in support of social reform
** Progressivism in the United States, the political philosophy in the American context
* Progressive realism, an American foreign policy par ...
and
perfect
Perfect commonly refers to:
* Perfection, completeness, excellence
* Perfect (grammar), a grammatical category in some languages
Perfect may also refer to:
Film
* Perfect (1985 film), ''Perfect'' (1985 film), a romantic drama
* Perfect (2018 f ...
aspects in addition to the simple form.
Syntax
Syntax is the set of rules governing how words combine into phrases and
clause
In language, a clause is a constituent that comprises a semantic predicand (expressed or not) and a semantic predicate. A typical clause consists of a subject and a syntactic predicate, the latter typically a verb phrase composed of a verb wi ...
s. It deals with the formation of
sentences, including rules governing or describing how sentences are formed.
In traditional usage, syntax is sometimes called ''grammar'', but the word grammar is also used more broadly to refer to various aspects of language and its
usage.
In traditional grammar syntax, a sentence is analyzed as having two parts, a
subject
Subject ( la, subiectus "lying beneath") may refer to:
Philosophy
*''Hypokeimenon'', or ''subiectum'', in metaphysics, the "internal", non-objective being of a thing
**Subject (philosophy), a being that has subjective experiences, subjective cons ...
and a
predicate. The subject is the thing being talked about. In English and similar languages, the subject usually occurs at the beginning of the sentence, but this is not always the case. The predicate comprises the rest of the sentence, all of the parts of the sentence that are not the subject.
The subject of a sentence is generally a noun or pronoun, or a
phrase
In syntax and grammar, a phrase is a group of words or singular word acting as a grammatical unit. For instance, the English expression "the very happy squirrel" is a noun phrase which contains the adjective phrase "very happy". Phrases can con ...
containing a noun or pronoun. If the sentence features
active voice, the thing named by the subject carries out the action of the sentence; in the case of
passive voice
A passive voice construction is a grammatical voice construction that is found in many languages. In a clause with passive voice, the grammatical subject expresses the ''theme'' or '' patient'' of the main verb – that is, the person or thing t ...
, the subject is affected by the action. In sentences with
imperative mood
The imperative mood is a grammatical mood that forms a command or request.
The imperative mood is used to demand or require that an action be performed. It is usually found only in the present tense, second person. To form the imperative mood, ...
, the subject may not be expressed.
*''Zoltan'' ate the cake. (Zoltan, the subject of this active sentence, carried out the action of eating.)
*''The cake'' was baked for Zora's birthday. (The cake, the subject of this passive sentence, is affected by the action of baking.)
*Bake another cake. (In this imperative sentence, the subject is not expressed. The
implied subject is ''you''.)
The predicate of a sentence may have many parts, but the only required element is a finite verb. In addition to the verb, the predicate may contain one or more
objects, a
subject complement,
object complements,
adpositional phrase
An adpositional phrase, in linguistics, is a syntactic category that includes ''prepositional phrases'', ''postpositional phrases'', and ''circumpositional phrases''. Adpositional phrases contain an adposition (preposition, postposition, or ci ...
s (in English, these are prepositional phrases), or
adverbial
In English grammar, an adverbial ( abbreviated ) is a word (an adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial clause or adverbial phrase) that modifies or more closely defines the sentence or the verb. (The word ''adverbial'' itself is also used as a ...
elements.
Some verbs (called
transitive verb
A transitive verb is a verb that accepts one or more objects, for example, 'cleaned' in ''Donald cleaned the window''. This contrasts with intransitive verbs, which do not have objects, for example, 'panicked' in ''Donald panicked''.
Transiti ...
s) take direct objects; some also take indirect objects. A direct object names the person or thing directly affected by the action of an active sentence. An indirect object names the entity indirectly affected. In a sentence with both a direct and an indirect object, the indirect object generally appears before the direct object.
In the following sentence, the direct object, ''the book'', is directly affected by the action; it is what is given. The indirect object, ''Nikolai'', is indirectly affected; he receives the book as a result of it being given.
*Yuri gave ''Nikolai'' the book.
In place of an indirect object, a prepositional phrase beginning with ''to'' or ''for'' may occur after the direct object.
*Yuri gave the book ''to Nikolai''.
A subject complement (variously called a
predicative expression, predicative, predicate noun or adjective, or complement) appears in a predicate with a
linking verb (also called a copula). A subject complement is a noun, adjective, or phrase that refers to the subject of the linking verb, illustrated in the following examples.
*Elizabeth is ''a doctor''.
*Salim is ''clever''.
*Kerli is ''from Estonia''.
While subject complements describe or modify the subject of a linking verb, object complements describe or modify nouns in the predicate, typically direct or indirect objects, or objects of adpositions. In the following example, the phrase ''sun's origin'' is a complement of the direct object ''Japan''.
*Chinese scholars called Japan "''sun's origin''".
A subject and a predicate together make up a
clause
In language, a clause is a constituent that comprises a semantic predicand (expressed or not) and a semantic predicate. A typical clause consists of a subject and a syntactic predicate, the latter typically a verb phrase composed of a verb wi ...
.
Although some traditional grammars consider adpositional phrases and adverbials part of the predicate, many grammars call these elements
adjuncts, meaning they are not a required element of the syntactic structure. Adjuncts may occur anywhere in a sentence.
Adpositional phrases can add to or modify the meaning of nouns, verbs, or adjectives. An adpositional phrase is a phrase that features either
a preposition, a postposition, or a circumposition. All three types of words have similar function; the difference is where the adposition appears relative to the other words in the phrase. Prepositions occur before their complements while postpositions appear after. Circumpositions consist of two parts, one before the complement and one after.
*
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
prepositional phrase: ("on the table")
*
Chinese postpositional phrase: (, "on the table")
*
Sorani Kurdish circumpostional phrase: ("in Kurdistan")
An adverbial consists of either a single adverb, an
adverbial phrase
In linguistics, an ''adverbial phrase'' ("AdvP") is a multi-word expression operating adverbially: its syntactic function is to modify other expressions, including verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adverbials, and sentences. Adverbial phrases can be divi ...
, or an
adverbial clause that modifies either the verb or the sentence as a whole. Some traditional grammars consider adpositional phrases a type of adverb, but many grammars treat these as separate. Adverbials may modify time, place, or manner.
Negation
In logic, negation, also called the logical complement, is an operation that takes a proposition P to another proposition "not P", written \neg P, \mathord P or \overline. It is interpreted intuitively as being true when P is false, and fals ...
is also frequently indicated with adverbials, including adverbs such as English ''not''.
See also
* ''
The Art of Grammar''
*
Linguistic prescription
*
Pedagogical grammar
A pedagogical grammar is a modern approach in linguistics intended to aid in teaching an additional language.
Structure
This method of teaching is divided into the descriptive: grammatical analysis, and the prescriptive: the articulation of a s ...
*
Regular and irregular verbs
*
Sentence diagram
*
Uses of English verb forms
This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes:
* Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went''
* Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone''
* Combinations of ...
*
Hypercorrection
Notes
References
Further reading
*
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Traditional Grammar
Grammar