''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea.

Description

Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''Toxicocalamus ernstmayri'', which measures snout-to-vent length (SVL) and in total length (TTL). The second longest is the holotype of ''T. grandis'', which measures SVL, TTL. Most species are under TTL, and several are the thickness of bootlaces. In general females have longer bodies than males, but much shorter tails.

Venom

Members of genus ''Toxicocalamus'' are venomous, with fixed front-fangs (a dental arrangement known as proteroglyphous), but are not known to be a threat to humans, being unaggressive, of modest size, and secretive. However, the venom of ''T. longissimus'' is believed to be fairly toxic, since it contains three-finger toxins (3FTx), Type-I

phospholipase A Phospholipase A can refer to: * Phospholipase A1 * Phospholipase A2 * Outer membrane phospholipase A1 An enzyme that displays both phospholipase A1 and phospholipase A2 activities is called a Phospholipase B (see main article on phospholipase ...

(PLA) and snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP), while ''T. buergersi'' possesses long venom glands than extend backwards into the body cavity.

Behaviour

Although most species of ''Toxicocalamous'' are believed to be diurnal, they are

fossorial A fossorial () animal is one adapted to digging which lives primarily, but not solely, underground. Some examples are badgers, naked mole-rats, clams, meerkats, and mole salamanders, as well as many beetles, wasps, and bees. Prehistoric eviden ...

, or semi-fossorial, in habit and rarely encountered. O'Shea, M. (1996). ''A Guide to the Snakes of Papua New Guinea''. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: Independent Publishing. vii + 239 pp. ..

Geographic range

Many species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are localised in their distribution and associated with particular islands or mountain ranges. Several species are poorly known, with four known only from their holotypes. ''Toxicocalamus'' is probably not closely related to the Australian Elapidae, being endemic to the island of New Guinea, northern coastal offshore islands, i.e. Seleo Is. ( Sandaun Province, PNG); Walis Is. and Tarawai Is. ( East Sepik Province, PNG), and Karkar Is. ( Madang Province, PNG), and the archipelagoes of Milne Bay Province to the southeast, i.e. d'Entrecasteaux Archipelago ( Goodenough Is., Fergusson Is., and Normanby Is.), Woodlark Is., and the Louisiade Archipelago ( Misima Is., Sudest Is., and Rossel Is.).

Diet

The prey of snakes in the genus ''Toxicocalamus'' appears to consist almost entirely of earthworms, particularly the giant earthworms of the Megascolecidae, hence the adoption of the term "worm-eating snakes" for species within this genus.

Reproduction

In common with other tropical elapids, ''Toxicocalamus'' is believed to reproduce by

oviparity Oviparous animals are animals that lay their eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother. This is the reproductive method of most fish, amphibians, most reptiles, and all pterosaurs, dinosaurs (including birds), and m ...

, with clutch sizes of 3–7 recorded, dependent on species and size of the female.

Natural history

The natural history of many species of ''Toxicocalamus'' is almost entirely undocumented, due to a paucity of specimens and the infrequence of their encounter in the field.

Species

The following 17 species, one of which has two

subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...

, are currently recognised as being valid in the genus ''Toxicocalamus'': * ''

Toxicocalamus buergersi ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' ( Sternfeld, 1913) (in German). – Buergers' forest snake, Torricelli Mountains snake * ''

Toxicocalamus cratermontanus ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Kraus, 2017 – Crater Mountain snake * ''

Toxicocalamus ernstmayri ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' O'Shea, Parker &

Kaiser ''Kaiser'' is the German word for "emperor" (female Kaiserin). In general, the German title in principle applies to rulers anywhere in the world above the rank of king (''König''). In English, the (untranslated) word ''Kaiser'' is mainly ap ...

, 2015 –

Star Mountains The Star Mountains (Dutch (colonial)'': Sterrengebergte''; Indonesian'': Pegunungan Bintang'') are a mountain range in western Papua New Guinea and the eastern end of Highland Papua, Indonesia, stretching from the eastern end of Indonesia to the ...

snake, Star Mountains worm-eating snake * ''

Toxicocalamus goodenoughensis ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family (biology), family Elapidae. The genus is Endemism, endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of ...

'' J.R. Roberts & C. Austin, 2020 * ''

Toxicocalamus grandis ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' (

Boulenger Boulenger is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Benjamin Boulenger (born 1990), French footballer * Edward George Boulenger (1888–1946), British zoologist, director of aquarium at London Zoo * George Albert Boulenger (1858–1 ...

, 1914) – Setakwa River snake, Setekwa River forest snake * ''

Toxicocalamus holopelturus ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' McDowell, 1969 – Mt. Rossel forest snake, Rossel Island snake * ''

Toxicocalamus longissimus ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Boulenger, 1896 – Fergusson Island forest snake, Woodlark forest snake, Woodlark Island snake * ''

Toxicocalamus loriae ''Toxicocalamus loriae'', also known commonly as the Loria forest snake, is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is endemic to New Guinea (including some outlying islands) and occurs in both Western New Guinea (Indone ...

'' (Boulenger, 1898) – common worm-eating snake, Loria forest snake *''

Toxicocalamus mattisoni ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Kraus, 2020 * ''

Toxicocalamus mintoni ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Kraus, 2009 – Minton's forest snake,

Sudest Island Vanatinai Island (also called Tagula and Sudest, for the names of the extreme capes of the island) is a volcanic island in the south-east of the Louisiade Archipelago within Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. The reef-fringed island is approxi ...

snake * ''

Toxicocalamus misimae ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' McDowell, 1969 – Misima Island forest snake, Misima Island snake * ''

Toxicocalamus nigrescens ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Kraus, 2017 – Fergusson Island worm-eating snake * ''

Toxicocalamus pachysomus ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Kraus, 2009 – Cloudy Mountains worm-eating snake * ''

Toxicocalamus preussi ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' (Sternfeld, 1913) – Preuss's forest snake, Preuss' slender worm-eating snake :* ''

Toxicocalamus preussi preussi ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' (Sternfeld, 1913) – Preuss's Sepek forest snake, Preuss' slender worm-eating snake :* ''

Toxicocalamus preussi angusticinctus ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Bogert & Matalas, 1945 – Fly River forest snake, Fly River slender worm-eating snake * ''

Toxicocalamus pumehanae ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family (biology), family Elapidae. The genus is Endemism, endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of ...

'' O'Shea, Allison & Kaiser, 2018 – Managalas Plateau snake * ''

Toxicocalamus spilolepidotus ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' McDowell, 1969 – Krakte Mountains spotted snake, spotted forest snake * ''

Toxicocalamus stanleyanus ''Toxicocalamus'' is a genus of snakes in the family Elapidae. The genus is endemic to New Guinea. Description Most species of ''Toxicocalamus'' are relatively small, the largest specimen known being the holotype of the recently described ''T ...

'' Boulenger, 1903 – Owen Stanley Mountains snake, Owen Stanley Range forest snake '' Nota bene'': A binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than ''Toxicocalamus''. These former genera, ''Apistocalamus, Apisthocalamus, Pseudapistocalamus, Pseudapisthocalamus, Ultrocalamus,'' and ''Vanapina'', are now

synonyms A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are all ...

of ''Toxicocalamus''.

Taxonomy

The former species ''Pseudapisthocalamus nymani'' Lönnberg, 1900; ''Apisthocalamus pratti'' Boulenger, 1904; ''A. loennbergii'' Boulenger, 1908; and ''A. lamingtoni'' Kinghorn, 1928; are synonyms of ''T. loriae'', ''Vanapina lineata'' De Vis, 1905 is a synonym of ''T. longissimus'', and ''Ultrocalamus latisquamatus'' Schüz, 1929 is a synonym of ''T. preussi''. Most of the described species are poorly known and rarely encountered. The most widely distributed, and most commonly encountered, species is ''T. loriae'' (itself a possible species complex), which accounts for 66% of all ''Toxicocalamus'' specimens in museum collections. ''T. loriae'' is frequently encountered in the Highlands, where large numbers have been collected in village gardens along the Wahgi River valley of Simbu Province, PNG. The next most frequently encountered and widely distributed species are ''T. preussi'' and ''T. stanleyanus''. All the other species are much less well known and localised in distribution. Also on mainland New Guinea, ''T. buergersi'' is known from only six specimens, from the Torricelli Mountains in the Sepik region ( Sandaun and East Sepik Provinces), PNG; ''T. spilolepidotus'' is known from two specimens, from the Kratke Range, Eastern Highlands Province, PNG; ''T. pachysomus'' is known from its holotype, from the Cloudy Mountains, Milne Bay Province; PNG, ''T. cratermontanus'' from its holotype, from Crater Mountain, Simbu Province, PNG, while ''T. ernstmayri'' was only known from its holotype in the

of Western Province, PNG, until a second specimen was observed crawling across mine-workings at the Ok Tedi Mine, in the Star Mountains. ''Toxicocalamus grandis'' is also only known from its holotype, collected on the Setakwa River, western New Guinea, in 1912, (the only species represented by a type specimen west of the WNG/PNG border), and ''T. pumehanae'' is also only known from its holotype, from the Managalas Plateau, Oro Province, PNG,. On the islands of

Milne Bay Milne Bay is a large bay in Milne Bay Province, south-eastern Papua New Guinea. More than long and over wide, Milne Bay is a sheltered deep-water harbor accessible via Ward Hunt Strait. It is surrounded by the heavily wooded Stirling Range to t ...

, ''T. holopelturus'' is known from 19 specimens from Rossel Island, also known as Yela; ''T. misimae'' is known from six specimens from Misima Island; and ''T. mintoni'' is only known from its holotype, from

, also known as Vanantai or Tagula Island, all in the Louisiade Archipelago. ''Toxicocalamus nigrescens'' is only known from its holotype and paratype, from Fergusson Island, in the d'Entercasteaux Archipelago, while ''T. longissimus'' is known from 12 specimens from Woodlark Island.