Tiwanaku ( es, Tiahuanaco or ) is a
Pre-Columbian
In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
archaeological site in western
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
near
Lake Titicaca
Lake Titicaca (; es, Lago Titicaca ; qu, Titiqaqa Qucha) is a large freshwater lake in the Andes mountains on the border of Bolivia and Peru. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world. By volume of water and by surface area, ...
, about 70 kilometers from
La Paz
La Paz (), officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Spanish pronunciation: ), is the seat of government of the Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 816,044 residents as of 2020, La Paz is the List of Bolivian cities ...
, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilometers and include decorated ceramics, monumental structures, and megalithic blocks. The site's population probably peaked around
AD 800 with 10,000 to 20,000 people.
The site was first recorded in
written history
Recorded history or written history describes the historical events that have been recorded in a written form or other documented communication which are subsequently evaluated by historians using the historical method. For broader world his ...
in 1549 by Spanish conquistador
Pedro Cieza de León
Pedro Cieza de León ( Llerena, Spain c. 1520 – Seville, Spain July 2, 1554) was a Spanish conquistador and chronicler of Peru and Popayán. He is known primarily for his history and description of Peru, ''Crónicas del Perú''. He wrote this ...
while searching for the southern Inca capital of
Qullasuyu
Qullasuyu (Quechua language, Quechua and Aymara language, Aymara spelling, ; Hispanicized spellings: ''Collasuyu, Kholla Suyu'') was the southeastern provincial region of the Inca Empire. Qullasuyu is the region of the Qulla and related specifica ...
.
Jesuit chronicler of Peru Bernabé Cobo reported that Tiwanaku's name once was ''taypiqala'', which is
Aymara
Aymara may refer to:
Languages and people
* Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language
** Aymara language, the main language within that family
** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
meaning "stone in the center", alluding to the belief that it lay at the center of the world.
The name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language.
Heggarty and Beresford-Jones suggest that the
Puquina language
Puquina (or Pukina) is a small, putative language family, often portrayed as a language isolate, which consists of the extinct Puquina language and Kallawaya, although it is assumed that the latter is just a remnant of the former mixed with Que ...
is most likely to have been the language of Tiwanaku.
Site History
The dating of the site has been significantly refined over the last century. From 1910 to 1945,
Arthur Posnansky
Arthur Posnansky (1873–1946), often called "Arturo", was at various times in his life an engineer, explorer, ship’s navigator, director of a river navigation company, entrepreneur, La Paz city council member, and well known and well respec ...
maintained that the site was 11,000–17,000 years old
based on comparisons to geological eras and
archaeoastronomy
Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultur ...
. Beginning in the 1970s, Carlos Ponce Sanginés proposed the site was first occupied around 1580 BC,
the site's oldest radiocarbon date. This date is still seen in some publications and museums in Bolivia. Since the 1980s, researchers have recognized this date as unreliable, leading to the consensus that the site is no older than 200 or 300 BC.
More recently, a statistical assessment of reliable radiocarbon dates estimates that the site was founded around AD 110 (50–170, 68% probability),
a date supported by the lack of ceramic styles from earlier periods.
Tiwanaku began its steady growth in the early centuries of the
common era
Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...
. From approximately 375 to 700 AD, the city grew to significance in the
Andes
The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
. At its height, the city of Tiwanaku spanned an area of roughly 4 square kilometers (1.5 square miles) and had a population greater than 10,000 individuals. The growth of the city was due to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade.
The site appeared to have collapsed around 1000 AD, however the reasoning behind this is still open to debate. Recent studies by geologist Dr. Elliott Arnold of the
University of Pittsburgh
The University of Pittsburgh (Pitt) is a public state-related research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The university is composed of 17 undergraduate and graduate schools and colleges at its urban Pittsburgh campus, home to the universit ...
have shown evidence of a greater amount of aridity in the region around the time of collapse. A drought in the region would have affected local systems of agriculture and likely played a role in the collapse of Tiwanaku.
Relationships
The people of Tiwanaku held a tight relationship with the
Wari culture
The Wari ( es, Huari) were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about 500 to 1000 AD.
Wari, as the former capital city was called, is located north-east of the mo ...
. The Wari civilizations contained types of architecture similar to what's found in Tiwanaku. The relationship between the two civilizations is presumed to be trade based or military based. The Wari aren't the only other civilization that Tiwanaku could have had contact with. Inca cities also contained similar types of architecture Infrastructure seen in Tiwanaku. From this it can be expected that the Inca took some inspiration from the city of Tiwanaku and other early civilizations in the Andean basin.
Structures
![Precolumbian Statue](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Precolumbian_Statue.jpg)
The structures that have been excavated by researchers at Tiwanaku include the terraced platform mound
Akapana, Akapana East, and
Pumapunku
Pumapunku or Puma Punku (Aymara language, Aymara and Quechua language, Quechua which literally means 'Gate of the Puma') is a 6th-century T-shaped and strategically aligned Artificiality, man-made terraced platform mound with a Sunken courtya ...
stepped platforms, the
Kalasasaya
The Kalasasaya (also: Kalassasaya; ''kala'' for ''stone''; ''saya'' or ''sayasta'' for ''standing up'') or Stopped Stones is a major archaeological structure that is part of Tiwanaku, an ancient archeological complex in the Andes of western Boli ...
, the Kantatallita temple, the Kheri Kala, and Putin enclosures, and the Semi-Subterranean Temple. These may be visited by the public.
The Akapana is an approximately cross-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court. This was nearly destroyed by a deep
looters excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the looter's excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase with sculptures is present on its western side. Possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners of this structure.
Originally, the Akapana was thought to have been developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first-century studies have shown that it is an entirely manmade earthen
mound
A mound is a heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris. Most commonly, mounds are earthen formations such as hills and mountains, particularly if they appear artificial. A mound may be any rounded area of topographically higher el ...
, faced with a mixture of large and small stone blocks. The dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the "moat" that surrounds the site.
The largest stone block within the Akapana, made of
andesite
Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomi ...
, is estimated to weigh 65.7
ton
Ton is the name of any one of several units of measure. It has a long history and has acquired several meanings and uses.
Mainly it describes units of weight. Confusion can arise because ''ton'' can mean
* the long ton, which is 2,240 pounds
...
s.
Tenon stone blocks in the form of puma and human heads stud the upper terraces.
The Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the ceremonial center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, which supported a group of buildings. Yellow and red clay was used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture.
[Isbell, W. H., 2004, ''Palaces and Politics in the Andean Middle Horizon.'' in S. T. Evans and J. Pillsbury, eds., pp. 191-246]
''Palaces of the Ancient New World''
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C.
The Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east-west axis like the Akapana. It is a T-shaped, terraced earthen platform mound faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and is 5 m tall. Identical 20-meter-wide projections extend 27.6 meters north and south from the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku. Walled and unwalled courts and an esplanade are associated with this structure.
A prominent feature of the Pumapunku is a large stone terrace; it is 6.75 by 38.72 meters in dimension and paved with large stone blocks. It is called the "''Plataforma Lítica''" and contains the largest stone block found in the Tiwanaku site.
[Ponce Sanginés, C. and G. M. Terrazas, 1970, ''Acerca De La Procedencia Del Material Lítico De Los Monumentos De Tiwanaku.'' Publication no. 21. ''Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia''.][Vranich, A., 1999]
''Interpreting the Meaning of Ritual Spaces: The Temple Complex of Pumapunku, Tiwanaku, Bolivia''
Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania. According to Ponce Sangines, the block is estimated to weigh 131 metric tonnes.
The second-largest stone block found within the Pumapunku is estimated to be 85 metric tonnes.
Scattered around the site of the Puma Punku are various types of incredibly cut stones. Due to the complexity of the stonework many have theorized the existence of aliens, however many stones are left unfinished and show how they might have been cut.
![TiahuanacoGateEGSquier1877](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/TiahuanacoGateEGSquier1877.jpg)
The Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway. It is located to the north of the Akapana and west of the Semi-Subterranean Temple. Within the courtyard is where explorers found the Gateway of the Sun. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized that this was not the gateway's original location.
Near the courtyard is the Semi-Subterranean Temple; a square sunken courtyard that is unique for its north-south rather than east-west axis.
The walls are covered with tenon heads of many different styles, suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time.
It was built with walls of sandstone pillars and smaller blocks of Ashlar masonry.
[Browman, D. L., 1981, "New light on Andean Tiwanaku," ''New Scientist'' vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 408-419.] The largest stone block in the Kalasasaya is estimated to weigh 26.95 metric tons.
Within many of the site's structures are impressive gateways; the ones of monumental scale are placed on artificial mounds, platforms, or sunken courts. Many gateways show iconography of the
Staff God
In Andean Iconography front-facing figures are often referred to as Staff Gods and thought to represent deities in Andean cultures. There is no uniform representation of a "Staff God". Dozens of variations of "Staff Gods" exist. Usually a Staff Go ...
. This iconography also is used on some oversized vessels, indicating an importance to the culture. This iconography is most present on the Gateway of the Sun.
The unique carvings on the top of the Gate of the sun depict animals and other beings. Some have claimed that the symbolism represents a calendar system unique to the people of Tiwanaku, although there is no definitive evidence that this theory is correct.
The Gateway of the Sun and others located at Pumapunku are not complete. They are missing part of a typical recessed frame known as a
chambranle
In architecture and joinery, the chambranle is the border, frame, or ornament, made of stone or wood, that is a component of the three sides round chamber doors, large windows, and chimneys.
When a chambranle is plain and without mouldings, it is ...
, which typically have sockets for clamps to support later additions. These architectural examples, as well as the recently discovered Akapana Gate, have unique detail and demonstrate high skill in stone-cutting. This reveals a knowledge of
descriptive geometry
Descriptive geometry is the branch of geometry which allows the representation of three-dimensional objects in two dimensions by using a specific set of procedures. The resulting techniques are important for engineering, architecture, design and ...
. The regularity of elements suggests they are part of a system of proportions.
![Puerta de la Luna - Tiahuanaco (Bolivia)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Puerta_de_la_Luna_-_Tiahuanaco_%28Bolivia%29.jpg)
Many theories for the skill of Tiwanaku's architectural construction have been proposed. One is that they used a ''luk’ a,'' which is a standard measurement of about sixty centimeters. Another argument is for the Pythagorean Ratio. This idea calls for right triangles at a ratio of five to four to three used in the gateways to measure all parts. Lastly, Protzen and Nair argue that Tiwanaku had a system set for individual elements dependent on context and composition. This is shown in the construction of similar gateways ranging from diminutive to monumental size, proving that scaling factors did not affect proportion. With each added element, the individual pieces were shifted to fit together.
[Protzen, J.-P., and S. E. Nair, 2000, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture": ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,'' vol. 59, no., 3, pp. 358-371.]
As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry, and textiles. Like the later Inca, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution. That is, the elites of the empire controlled essentially all economic output but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchical stratification within the empire.
Some authors believe that the elites of Tiwanaku lived inside four walls that were surrounded by a moat. This theory is called "Tiwanaku moat theory". This moat, some believe, was to create the image of a sacred island. Inside the walls were many images devoted to human origin, which only the elites would see. Commoners may have entered this structure only for ceremonial purposes since it was home to the holiest of shrines.
Cosmology
In many Andean cultures, mountains are venerated and may be considered sacred objects. The site of Tiwanaku is located in the valley between two sacred mountains,
Pukara
Pukara (Aymara and Quechuan "fortress", Hispanicized spellings ''pucara, pucará'') is a defensive hilltop site or fortification built by the prehispanic and historic inhabitants of the central Andean area (from Ecuador to central Chile and nor ...
and
Chuqi Q’awa. At such temples in ancient times, ceremonies were conducted to honor and pay gratitude to the gods and spirits. They were places of worship and rituals that helped unify Andean peoples through share
symbolsand
pilgrimage
A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
destinations.
Tiwanaku became a center of pre-Columbian religious ceremonies for both the general public and elites. For example,
human sacrifice
Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein ...
was used in several pre-Columbian civilizations to appease a god in exchange for good fortune. Excavations of the Akapana temple at Tiwanaku revealed the remains of sacrificial dedications of humans and camelids. Researchers speculate that the Akapana temple may also have been used as an astronomical observatory. It was constructed so that it was aligned with the peak of
Quimsachata, providing a view of the rotation of the Milky Way from the southern pole. Other temples like
Kalasasaya
The Kalasasaya (also: Kalassasaya; ''kala'' for ''stone''; ''saya'' or ''sayasta'' for ''standing up'') or Stopped Stones is a major archaeological structure that is part of Tiwanaku, an ancient archeological complex in the Andes of western Boli ...
are positioned to provide optimal views of the sunrise on the Equinox, Summer Solstice, and Winter Solstice. Although the symbolic and functional value of these monuments can only be speculated upon, the Tiwanaku were able to study and interpret the positions of the sun, moon, Milky Way and other celestial bodies well enough to give them a significant role in their architecture.
Aymara
Aymara may refer to:
Languages and people
* Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language
** Aymara language, the main language within that family
** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
legends place Tiwanaku at the center of the universe, probably because of the importance of its geographical location. The Tiwanaku were highly aware of their natural surroundings and would use them and their understanding of astronomy as reference points in their architectural plans. The most significant landmarks in Tiwanaku are the mountains and Lake Titicaca. Although the shores of Lake Titicaca are now located 20 kilometers west of Tiwanaku, the lake has decreased in size due to drought. In ancient times, it likely extended to Tiwanaku. The spiritual importance and location of the lake contributed to the religious significance of Tiwanaku. In the Tiwanaku worldview, Lake Titicaca is the spiritual birthplace of their cosmic beliefs. According to Incan mythology, Lake Titicaca is the birthplace of
Viracocha
Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, and Con-Tici (also spelled Kon-Tiki, the source of the ...
, who was responsible for creating the sun, moon, people, and the cosmos. In the Kalasasaya temple at Tiwanaku, carved atop a monolith known as the
Gate of the Sun
The Gate of the Sun, also known as the Gateway of the Sun, is a monolith carved in the form of an arch or gateway at the site of Tiahuanaco by the Tiwanaku culture, an Andean civilization of Bolivia that thrived around Lake Titicaca in the Ande ...
, is a deity holding a lightning bolt and snuff. Many speculate that this is a representation of Viracocha because the figure is depicted wearing a sun crown. However, it is also possible that this figure represents a deity that the Aymara refer to as “Tunuupa” who, like Viracocha, is associated with legends of creation and destruction.
The
Aymara
Aymara may refer to:
Languages and people
* Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language
** Aymara language, the main language within that family
** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
, who are thought to be descendants of the Tiwanaku, have a complex belief system similar to the cosmology of several other Andean civilizations. They believe in the existence of three spaces: Arajpacha, the upper world; Akapacha, the middle or inner world; and Manqhaoacha, the lower world. Often associated with the cosmos and Milky Way, the upper world is considered to be where celestial beings live. The middle world is where all living things are, and the lower world is where life itself is inverted.
Archaeology
As the site has suffered from looting and amateur excavations since shortly after Tiwanaku's fall, archeologists must attempt to interpret it with the understanding that materials have been jumbled and destroyed. This destruction continued during the Spanish conquest and colonial period, and during 19th century and the early 20th century. Other damage was committed by people quarrying stone for building and railroad construction, and target practice by military personnel.
No standing buildings have survived at the modern site. Only public, non-domestic foundations remain, with poorly reconstructed walls. The ashlar blocks used in many of these structures were mass-produced in similar styles so that they could possibly be used for multiple purposes. Throughout the period of the site, certain buildings changed purposes, causing a mix of artifacts found today.
Detailed study of Tiwanaku began on a small scale in the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s,
Ephraim George Squier
Ephraim George Squier (June 17, 1821 – April 17, 1888), usually cited as E. G. Squier, was an American archaeologist, history writer, painter and newspaper editor.
Biography
Squier was born in Bethlehem, New York, the son of a minister, Joel ...
visited the ruins and later published maps and sketches completed during his visit. German geologist
Alphons Stübel
Moritz Alphons Stübel (26 July 1835 – 10 November 1904) was a German geologist and naturalist.
Biography
He studied chemistry and mineralogy at the University of Leipzig. With geologist Wilhelm Reiss (1838–1908), he conducted geolog ...
spent nine days in Tiwanaku in 1876, creating a map of the site based on careful measurements. He also made sketches and created paper impressions of carvings and other architectural features. A book containing major photographic documentation was published in 1892 by engineer Georg von Grumbkow, With commentary by archaeologist
Max Uhle
Friedrich Max Uhle (25 March 1856 – 11 May 1944) was a German archaeologist, whose work in Peru, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia at the turn of the Twentieth Century had a significant impact on the practice of archaeology of South America.
Biograph ...
, this was the first in-depth scientific account of the ruins.
Von Grumbkow had first visited Tiwanaku between the end of 1876 and the beginning of 1877, when he accompanied as a photographer the expedition of French adventurer
Théodore Ber
Théodore Ber (7 March 1820 – 21 November 1900), was a French archaeologist and anthropologist who spent most of his adult life in Peru. Although an amateur, his work was appreciated by some scholars and officially recognized by the French gove ...
, financed by American businessman
Henry Meiggs
Henry Meiggs (July 7, 1811 – September 30, 1877), was a promotor/entrepreneur and railroad builder born in Boston, Massachusetts
Business career
Lumber
Meiggs came to New York City in 1835 and began a lumber business that was ruined by the ...
, against Ber’s promise of donating the artifacts he will find, on behalf of Meiggs, to Washington's
Smithsonian Institution
The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums and education and research centers, the largest such complex in the world, created by the U.S. government "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge". Founded ...
and the
American Museum of Natural History
The American Museum of Natural History (abbreviated as AMNH) is a natural history museum on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City. In Theodore Roosevelt Park, across the street from Central Park, the museum complex comprises 26 inter ...
in
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* '' ...
. Ber’s expedition was cut short by the violent hostility of the local population, instigated by the Catholic parish priest, but von Grumbkow’s early pictures survive.
;Pictures of archaeological excavations in 1903
File:Escalinata monolítica 1903-1904.jpg, Stairs of Kalasasaya (1903)
File:Edificio de la segunda Epoca - Vista de la izquierda 1903-1904.jpg, Semi-Subterranean Temple (1903)
File:Puerta monolitica (Puerta del Sol.) 1903-1904.jpg, Gate of the Sun (1903)
File:Puerta monolítica, vista de atras 1903-1904.jpg, Gate of the Sun, Rear View (1903)
Contemporary excavation and restoration
![Tiwanaku 09](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Tiwanaku_09.jpg)
In the 1960s, the Bolivian government initiated an effort to restore the site and reconstruct part of it. The walls of the Kalasasaya are almost all reconstructed. The original stones making up the Kalasasaya would have resembled a more "Stonehenge"-like style, spaced evenly apart and standing straight up. The reconstruction was not sufficiently based on research; for instance, a new wall was built around Kalasasaya. The reconstruction does not have as high quality of stonework as was present in Tiwanaku.
As noted, the Gateway of the Sun, now in the Kalasasaya, is believed to have been moved from its original location.
Modern, academically sound archaeological excavations were performed from 1978 through the 1990s by
University of Chicago
The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, U of C, or UChi) is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. Its main campus is located in Chicago's Hyde Park neighborhood. The University of Chicago is consistently ranked among the b ...
anthropologist
An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and ...
Alan Kolata and his Bolivian counterpart, Oswaldo Rivera. Among their contributions are the rediscovery of the
suka kollus, accurate dating of the civilization's growth and influence, and evidence for a drought-based collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization.
Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have argued that the
Tiwanaku empire ranged outside of the altiplano area and into the
Moquegua
Moquegua (, founded by the Spanish colonists as Villa de Santa Catalina de Guadalcázar del Valle de Moquegua) is a city in southern Peru, located in the Department of Moquegua, of which it is the capital. It is also capital of Mariscal Nieto Pr ...
Valley in Peru. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound.
Evidence of similar types of cranial vault modification in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument.
Today Tiwanaku has been designated as a
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
World Heritage Site
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
, administered by the Bolivian government.
Recently, the Department of Archaeology of Bolivia (DINAR, directed by Javier Escalante) has been conducting excavations on the terraced platform mound Akapana. The Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana (Pumapunku-Akapana Archaeological Project, PAPA) run by the
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn or UPenn) is a private research university in Philadelphia. It is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and is ranked among the highest-regarded universitie ...
, has been excavating in the area surrounding the terraced platform mound for the past few years, and also conducting
Ground Penetrating Radar
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a Geophysics, geophysical method that uses radar pulses to Geophysical imaging, image the subsurface. It is a non-intrusive method of surveying the sub-surface to investigate underground utilities such as concrete, ...
surveys of the area.
In former years, an archaeological field school offered through
Harvard
Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
's Summer School Program, conducted in the residential area outside the monumental core, has provoked controversy amongst local archaeologists. The program was directed by Dr.
Gary Urton
Gary Urton (born July 7, 1946) is an American anthropologist. He was the Dumbarton Oaks Professor of Pre-Columbian Studies at Harvard University and the chair of its anthropology department between 2012 and 2019. Urton retired from Harvard in 20 ...
, of Harvard, who was an expert on
quipu
''Quipu'' (also spelled ''khipu'') are recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by a number of cultures in the region of Andean South America.
A ''quipu'' usually consisted of cotton or camelid fiber strings. The Inca people u ...
s, and Dr.
Alexei Vranich
Alexei Vranich ( ; born July 15, 1968) is an American archaeologist specializing in the pre-Columbian South America. His previous positions include Visiting Professor at the University of Warsaw, Poland (2021-22)Programme ZIP UNIA Europejska, Lec ...
of the
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn or UPenn) is a private research university in Philadelphia. It is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and is ranked among the highest-regarded universitie ...
. The controversy was over allowing a team of untrained students to work on the site, even under professional supervision. It was so important that only certified professional archaeologists with documented funding were allowed access. The controversy was charged with nationalistic and political undertones. The Harvard field school lasted for three years, beginning in 2004 and ending in 2007. The project was not renewed in subsequent years, nor was permission sought to do so.
In 2009 state-sponsored restoration work on
Akapana was halted due to a complaint from
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
. The restoration had consisted of facing the pyramid with
adobe
Adobe ( ; ) is a building material made from earth and organic materials. is Spanish for ''mudbrick''. In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States, the term is used to refer to any kind of e ...
, although researchers had not established this as appropriate.
In 2013,
marine archaeologists exploring Lake Titicaca's Khoa reef discovered an ancient ceremonial site and lifted artifacts such as a
lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color.
As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, ...
and
ceramic
A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain ...
figurines,
incense
Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be ...
burners and a ceremonial medallion from the lake floor.
The artifacts are representative of the lavishness of the ceremonies and the Tiwanaku culture.
When a topographical map of the site was created in 2016 by the use of a drone, a "set of hitherto unknown structures" was revealed. These structures spanned over 411 hectares, and included a stone temple and about one hundred circular or rectangular structures of vast dimensions, which were possibly domestic units.
Aerial surveillance
Between 2005 and 2007 various types of aerial surveillance methods were used by
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
to create an aerial picture of the site. Lidar, aerial photography, drones, and terrestrial laser scanning were all used in this process. Data concluded from this research includes topographical maps that show the principal structures at the site along with mapping of multiple structures in the Mollo Kuntu area. Over 300 million data points were placed from these methods and have helped redefine main structures that have not fully been excavated such as the Puma Punku.
Influence on the world
Tiwanaku is home to many types of beautiful sculptures and architecture that inspired many other cultures. Being that Tiwanaku is one of the earliest known South American civilizations it inspired later civilizations such as the Inca. The agricultural system of Tiwanaku known as flooded raised fields was a first of its kind and was seen in many civilizations after.
Today the remains of the city still act as important places for the indigenous people of Bolivia known as the Aymara. Bolivia's 65th president
Evo Morales
Juan Evo Morales Ayma (; born 26 October 1959) is a Bolivian politician, trade union organizer, and former cocalero activist who served as the 65th president of Bolivia from 2006 to 2019. Widely regarded as the country's first president to co ...
became the first indigenous president when he was elected in 2006 and held his inauguration at the site of Tiwanaku.
Important authors
Alan Kolata of
the University of Chicago
The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, U of C, or UChi) is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. Its main campus is located in Chicago's Hyde Park neighborhood. The University of Chicago is consistently ranked among the be ...
conducted research at Tiwanaku in the late 1900’s from which he made descriptions of the City and its structure and culture in his book The Tiwanaku. He later published ''Valley of The Spirits'' which described more aspects of Tiwanaku culture such as astrology and mythology.
John Wayne Janusek of
Vanderbilt University
Vanderbilt University (informally Vandy or VU) is a private research university in Nashville, Tennessee. Founded in 1873, it was named in honor of shipping and rail magnate Cornelius Vanderbilt, who provided the school its initial $1-million ...
spent time in the late 1900’s as well at the site of Tiwanaku recording findings of the excavations going on. In 2008 he published ''Ancient Tiwanaku'' which described his findings on the architecture, agriculture and other aspects of Tiwanaku life.
Jean-Pierre Protzen was an architecture professor of the
University of California at Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public land-grant research university in Berkeley, California. Established in 1868 as the University of California, it is the state's first land-grant univ ...
and spent much of his life studying the architecture of Tiwanaku. In 2013, he published ''The Stones of Tiahuanaco'' which gives great descriptions of the architecture and stonework seen at Tiwanaku. His work has played a huge role in creating potential reconstructions of what many of the structures look like, especially the puma punku.
See also
*
Arthur Posnansky
Arthur Posnansky (1873–1946), often called "Arturo", was at various times in his life an engineer, explorer, ship’s navigator, director of a river navigation company, entrepreneur, La Paz city council member, and well known and well respec ...
*
Kalasasaya
The Kalasasaya (also: Kalassasaya; ''kala'' for ''stone''; ''saya'' or ''sayasta'' for ''standing up'') or Stopped Stones is a major archaeological structure that is part of Tiwanaku, an ancient archeological complex in the Andes of western Boli ...
*
Kimsa Chata
*
Las Ánimas complex
*
List of megalithic sites
A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to:
People
* List (surname)
Organizations
* List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America
* SC Germania List, German rugby union ...
*
List of World Heritage Sites in South America
This is a list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South America.
Legend
:Site; as per officially inscribed name
:Location; at city, regional, or provincial level and geocoordinates
:Criteria; as defined by the World Heritage Committee
:Area; in h ...
*
Qhunqhu Wankani
*
Tiwanaku Empire
*
Wari culture
The Wari ( es, Huari) were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about 500 to 1000 AD.
Wari, as the former capital city was called, is located north-east of the mo ...
References
Bibliography
* Bermann, Marc ''Lukurmata'' Princeton University Press (1994) .
* Bruhns, Karen Olsen, ''Ancient South America'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, c. 1994.
* Goldstein, Paul, "Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moduegua, Peru", ''Latin American Antiquity'', Vol. 4, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 22–47, Society for American Archaeology.
* Hoshower, Lisa M.,
Jane E. Buikstra
Jane Ellen Buikstra (born 1945) is an American anthropologist and bioarchaeologist. Her 1977 article on the biological dimensions of archaeology coined and defined the field of bioarchaeology in the US as the application of biological anthropol ...
, Paul S. Goldstein, and Ann D. Webster, "Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru", ''Latin American Antiquity'', Vol. 6, No. 2 (June, 1995) pp. 145–64, Society for American Archaeology.
* Janusek, John Wayne ''Ancient Tiwanaku'' Cambridge University Press (2008) .
* Kolata, Alan L., "The Agricultural Foundations of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Heartland", ''American Antiquity'', Vol. 51, No. 4 (October 1986), pp. 748–762, Society for American Archaeology.
* .
* Protzen, Jean-Pierre and Stella E. Nair, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture", ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 59, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 358–71, Society of Architectural Historians.
* Reinhard, Johan, "Chavin and Tiahuanaco: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers." ''National Geographic Research'' 1(3): 395–422, 1985.
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{{Authority control
1st-millennium BC establishments
Archaeological sites in Bolivia
World Heritage Sites in Bolivia
Former populated places in Bolivia
Buildings and structures in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
Tourist attractions in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
Prehistory of Bolivia
Archaeoastronomy
Tiwanaku culture