Theodore II Doukas Laskaris or Ducas Lascaris ( gr, Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις, Theodōros Doukas Laskaris; 1221/1222 – 16 August 1258) was
Emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
of
Nicaea
Nicaea, also known as Nicea or Nikaia (; ; grc-gre, Νίκαια, ) was an ancient Greek city in Bithynia, where located in northwestern Anatolia and is primarily known as the site of the First and Second Councils of Nicaea (the first and seve ...
from 1254 to 1258. He was the only child of Emperor
John III Doukas Vatatzes
John III Doukas Vatatzes, Latinized as Ducas Vatatzes ( el, Ιωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης, ''Iōannēs Doukas Vatatzēs'', c. 1192 – 3 November 1254), was Emperor of Nicaea from 1221 to 1254. He was succeeded by his son, known ...
and Empress
Irene Laskarina
Irene Laskarina (died 1240) ( el, Εἰρήνη Λασκαρίνα, ''Eirēnē Laskarina'') was an Empress of Nicaea. She was a daughter of Theodore I Laskaris, emperor of Nicaea and Anna Angelina. Her maternal grandparents were Emperor Alexios ...
. His mother was the eldest daughter of
Theodore I Laskaris
Theodore I Laskaris or Lascaris ( gr, Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις, Theodōros Komnēnos Laskaris; 1175November 1221) was the first emperor of Nicaea—a successor state of the Byzantine Empire—from 1205 to his de ...
who had established the Empire of Nicaea as a successor state to the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
in
Asia Minor
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
, after the crusaders captured the Byzantine capital,
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, during the
Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was a Latin Christian armed expedition called by Pope Innocent III. The stated intent of the expedition was to recapture the Muslim-controlled city of Jerusalem, by first defeating the powerful Egyptian Ayyubid S ...
in 1204. Theodore received an excellent education from two renowned scholars,
Nikephoros Blemmydes Nikephoros Blemmydes (Latinized as Nicephorus Blemmydes; el, Νικηφόρος Βλεμμύδης, 1197–1272) was a 13th-century Byzantine author.
Biography
Blemmydes was born in 1197 in Constantinople as the second child of a physician. After ...
and
George Akropolites George Akropolites ( Latinized as Acropolites or Acropolita; el, , ''Georgios Akropolites''; 1217 or 1220 – 1282) was a Byzantine Greek historian and statesman born at Constantinople.
Life
In his sixteenth year he was sent by his father, the ...
. He made friends with young intellectuals, especially with a page of low birth,
George Mouzalon
George Mouzalon ( el, Γεώργιος Μουζάλων, Geōrgios Mouzalōn; – 25 August 1258) was a high official of the Empire of Nicaea under Theodore II Laskaris ().
Of humble origin, he became Theodore's companion in childhood and was ...
. Theodore began to write treatises on theological, historical and philosophical themes in his youth.
Emperor John III arranged for Theodore to marry
Elena of Bulgaria
Elena of Bulgaria was an empress consort of Nicaea, married to Theodore II Laskaris (r. 1254–1258). She was daughter of Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen II and Anna Maria of Hungary.
Life
Born in to Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen II and Anna Maria o ...
in 1235, to forge an alliance with her father,
Ivan Asen II
Ivan Asen II, also known as John Asen II ( bg, Иван Асен II, ; 1190s – May/June 1241), was Emperor (Tsar) of Bulgaria from 1218 to 1241. He was still a child when his father Ivan Asen I one of the founders of the Second Bulgarian Empir ...
, against the
Latin Empire of Constantinople
The Latin Empire, also referred to as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, was a feudal Crusader state founded by the leaders of the Fourth Crusade on lands captured from the Byzantine Empire. The Latin Empire was intended to replace the Byzanti ...
. According to Theodore himself, their marriage was happy, and they had five or six children. From 1241, Theodore acted as his father's lieutenant in Asia Minor during his frequent military campaigns in the
Balkan Peninsula
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
. From around 1242, he was his father's co-ruler, but was not crowned as co-emperor. During this period, his relationship with some prominent aristocrats, particularly
Theodore Philes Theodore Philes ( el, ) was a Byzantine nobleman and governor of Thessalonica in the mid-13th century.
Theodore is the first notable member of the Philes family.Trapp (1991), p. 1650 He was appointed governor of Thessalonica by the Nicaean empero ...
and
Michael Palaiologos, grew tense.
Theodore succeeded his father on 4 November 1254. He dismissed many high officials and army commanders of aristocratic origin, replacing them with loyal friends, including those of low birth. He made a defensive alliance with
Kaykaus II, the
Seljuk Seljuk or Saljuq (سلجوق) may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* Seljuk (warlord) (di ...
Sultan of Rum
fa, سلجوقیان روم ()
, status =
, government_type = Hereditary monarchyTriarchy (1249–1254)Diarchy (1257–1262)
, year_start = 1077
, year_end = 1308
, p1 = By ...
, against the
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
. He repelled a Bulgarian invasion of Thrace and Macedonia and forced
Michael II Komnenos Doukas, the ruler of
Epirus
sq, Epiri rup, Epiru
, native_name_lang =
, settlement_type = Historical region
, image_map = Epirus antiquus tabula.jpg
, map_alt =
, map_caption = Map of ancient Epirus by Heinrich ...
, to cede
Dyrrachium on the coast of the
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to t ...
to Nicaea. He reformed the military, recruiting more soldiers from among the native peasantry of Asia Minor. Eventually, Michael II of Epirus forged an alliance with
Stefan Uroš I,
King of Serbia
This is an archontological list of Serbian monarchs, containing monarchs of the medieval principalities, to heads of state of modern Serbia.
The Serbian monarchy dates back to the Early Middle Ages. The Serbian royal titles used include Knya ...
, and
Manfred of Sicily
Manfred ( scn, Manfredi di Sicilia; 123226 February 1266) was the last King of Sicily from the Hohenstaufen dynasty, reigning from 1258 until his death. The natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, Manfred became regent over th ...
against Nicaea. Theodore's newly appointed generals could not resist their joint invasion in 1257. Theodore fell seriously ill and could rarely take part in state administration during the last months of his life. He appointed George Mouzalon
regent
A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
for his underage son,
John IV, before he died of either chronic
epilepsy
Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrical ...
or cancer. In ten days, Mouzalon fell victim to an aristocratic plot, and Michael Palaiologos assumed the regency, usurping the throne soon after.
Early life
Childhood
Theodore was born to Emperor
John III Doukas Vatatzes
John III Doukas Vatatzes, Latinized as Ducas Vatatzes ( el, Ιωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης, ''Iōannēs Doukas Vatatzēs'', c. 1192 – 3 November 1254), was Emperor of Nicaea from 1221 to 1254. He was succeeded by his son, known ...
and
Irene Laskarina
Irene Laskarina (died 1240) ( el, Εἰρήνη Λασκαρίνα, ''Eirēnē Laskarina'') was an Empress of Nicaea. She was a daughter of Theodore I Laskaris, emperor of Nicaea and Anna Angelina. Her maternal grandparents were Emperor Alexios ...
in the imperial palace in
Nicaea
Nicaea, also known as Nicea or Nikaia (; ; grc-gre, Νίκαια, ) was an ancient Greek city in Bithynia, where located in northwestern Anatolia and is primarily known as the site of the First and Second Councils of Nicaea (the first and seve ...
in late 1221 or early 1222. Irene was the eldest daughter of
Theodore I Laskaris
Theodore I Laskaris or Lascaris ( gr, Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις, Theodōros Komnēnos Laskaris; 1175November 1221) was the first emperor of Nicaea—a successor state of the Byzantine Empire—from 1205 to his de ...
, the founder of the
Empire of Nicaea
The Empire of Nicaea or the Nicene Empire is the conventional historiographic name for the largest of the three Byzantine Greek''A Short history of Greece from early times to 1964'' by W. A. Heurtley, H. C. Darby, C. W. Crawley, C. M. Woodhouse ...
. Nicaea was a successor state of the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
, established after the Catholic ("
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
") crusaders
captured Constantinople during the
Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was a Latin Christian armed expedition called by Pope Innocent III. The stated intent of the expedition was to recapture the Muslim-controlled city of Jerusalem, by first defeating the powerful Egyptian Ayyubid S ...
in 1204. Vatatzes was Irene's third husband. He was born into a Byzantine aristocratic family related to the imperial dynasties of
Komnenos
Komnenos ( gr, Κομνηνός; Latinized Comnenus; plural Komnenoi or Comneni (Κομνηνοί, )) was a Byzantine Greek noble family who ruled the Byzantine Empire from 1081 to 1185, and later, as the Grand Komnenoi (Μεγαλοκομνην ...
and
Angelos
The House of Angelos (; gr, Ἄγγελος), feminine form Angelina (), plural Angeloi (), was a Byzantine Greek noble lineage which rose to prominence through the marriage of its founder, Constantine Angelos, with Theodora Komnene, the youn ...
. When he wed Irene, he served as the commander of the
imperial guard
An imperial guard or palace guard is a special group of troops (or a member thereof) of an empire, typically closely associated directly with the Emperor or Empress. Usually these troops embody a more elite status than other imperial forces, in ...
. Although Irene's two brothers had died prematurely, Theodore I did not name Vatatzes as his official heir. He most likely expected that his third wife, the Latin
Maria of Courtenay Marie de Courtenay (c. 1204 – September 1228) was an Empress of Nicaea. She was a daughter of Peter II of Courtenay and Yolanda of Flanders. She married Theodore I of Nicaea. Marie served as regent for her younger brother Baldwin II of Courtenay ...
, would bear sons, but he did not father children with her. Theodore I died in November 1221. Vatatzes had to defeat the late emperor's brothers,
Alexios
Alexius is the Latinized form of the given name Alexios ( el, Αλέξιος, polytonic , "defender", cf. Alexander), especially common in the later Byzantine Empire. The female form is Alexia ( el, Αλεξία) and its variants such as Alessia ...
and
Isaac Laskaris Isaac Laskaris ( el, Ισαάκιος Λάσκαρις) was a brother of Nicaean emperor Theodore I Laskaris, who along with his brother Alexios Laskaris fled to the Latin Empire and unsuccessfully tried to topple Theodore's successor, John III Douk ...
, to seize the throne. His victory over his wife's uncles and their Latin allies in the
Battle of Poimanenon
The Battle of Poimanenon or Poemanenum was fought in early 1224 (or possibly late 1223) between the forces of the two main successor states of the Byzantine Empire; the Latin Empire and the Byzantine Greek Empire of Nicaea. The opposing forces ...
in the winter of 1223–1224 opened the way for the reconquest of Byzantine territories lost to the Latins in
Asia Minor
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
.
Theodore was his parents' only child. His mother had been in a horse riding accident and could not bear children after his birth. He adopted his mother's family name. He was "raised as usual for a royal child", according to his own words, most probably referring to his upbringing in the women's quarter of the palace and the luxury surrounding him. His childhood was joyful and he "often received greatest solace" from his father. He also remembered his parents did not punish him when his tutor had accused him of misdemeanors.
Education
If Theodore's formal education began at the age when most aristocratic children were taught to write and read, he was entrusted to an elementary teacher's care in 1228. As part of his education, he memorized texts from the Bible and prayed three times a day. He could quote from the
Psalms
The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived ...
and the
parables of Jesus
The parables of Jesus are found in the Synoptic Gospels and some of the non-canonical gospels. They form approximately one third of his recorded teachings. Christians place great emphasis on these parables, which they generally regard as the word ...
by heart until the end of his life. Theodore's secondary education began around 1230. He detested his principal tutor (or ''
baioulos The term ''baioulos'' ( el, βαΐουλος) was used in the Byzantine Empire to refer to a preceptor or tutor of imperial princes. Only a handful of holders are known, but due to the office's close proximity to the imperial family, and the ties it ...
'') and described him as a "great babbler" in his works, without mentioning his name. He studied grammar (that is
Attic Greek
Attic Greek is the Greek language, Greek dialect of the regions of ancient Greece, ancient region of Attica, including the ''polis'' of classical Athens, Athens. Often called classical Greek, it was the prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige diale ...
), poetry, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, astronomy, geometry and music for three years. His grammatical studies raised his lifelong interest in words with multiple meaning and in
etymologies
Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the form of words and ...
. The young Theodore was captivated by the orations of
Demosthenes
Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prow ...
and
Hermogenes of Tarsus
Hermogenes of Tarsus ( grc-gre, Ἑρμογένης ὁ Ταρσεύς) was a Greek rhetorician, surnamed The Polisher (). He flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (AD 161–180).
Life and work
His precocious ability secured him a public ap ...
. He also held theologian
Gregory of Nazianzus
Gregory of Nazianzus ( el, Γρηγόριος ὁ Ναζιανζηνός, ''Grēgorios ho Nazianzēnos''; ''Liturgy of the Hours'' Volume I, Proper of Saints, 2 January. – 25 January 390,), also known as Gregory the Theologian or Gregory N ...
in high esteem. His tutor mocked him for "philosophizing" and urged Theodore to spend more time with military and diplomatic studies. Theodore was a passionate hunter and
polo
Polo is a ball game played on horseback, a traditional field sport and one of the world's oldest known team sports. The game is played by two opposing teams with the objective of scoring using a long-handled wooden mallet to hit a small hard ...
player with remarkable riding skills.
Negotiations over Theodore's marriage with
Elena of Bulgaria
Elena of Bulgaria was an empress consort of Nicaea, married to Theodore II Laskaris (r. 1254–1258). She was daughter of Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen II and Anna Maria of Hungary.
Life
Born in to Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen II and Anna Maria o ...
began shortly after the
Battle of Klokotnitsa
The Battle of Klokotnitsa ( bg, Битката при Клокотница, ''Bitkata pri Klokotnitsa'') occurred on 9 March 1230 near the village of Klokotnitsa (today in Haskovo Province, Bulgaria) between Second Bulgarian Empire and Empire ...
, where Elena's father, Emperor (or Tzar)
Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, inflicted a crushing defeat on the
Emperor of Thessalonica
The Empire of Thessalonica is a historiographic term used by some modern scholarse.g. ,, , . to refer to the short-lived Byzantine Greek state centred on the city of Thessalonica between 1224 and 1246 (''sensu stricto'' until 1242) and ruled by th ...
and ruler of
Epirus
sq, Epiri rup, Epiru
, native_name_lang =
, settlement_type = Historical region
, image_map = Epirus antiquus tabula.jpg
, map_alt =
, map_caption = Map of ancient Epirus by Heinrich ...
,
Theodore Komnenos Doukas
Theodore Komnenos Doukas ( el, Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Δούκας, ''Theodōros Komnēnos Doukas'', latinisation of names, Latinized as Theodore Comnenus Ducas, died 1253) was ruler of Despotate of Epirus, Epirus and Thessaly#Late M ...
. The battle weakened Epirus–Thessalonica, Nicaea's western rival for the revival of the Byzantine Empire, and made
Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
the dominant power of the
Balkan Peninsula
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
. The marriage of Theodore and Elena sealed their fathers' alliance against the
Latin Empire of Constantinople
The Latin Empire, also referred to as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, was a feudal Crusader state founded by the leaders of the Fourth Crusade on lands captured from the Byzantine Empire. The Latin Empire was intended to replace the Byzanti ...
in 1235. In the same year, Bulgarian and Nicaean troops laid
siege to Constantinople, but could not capture the city. In 1237, Ivan Asen then reversed his position, allying himself with the Latins to stop Nicaean expansion in
Thrace
Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to t ...
, only to return to his alliance with Nicaea before the end of the year. His father-in-law's tactical moves convinced Theodore that he could not fully trust the Bulgarians—a view he held for the rest of his life.
Theodore approached a most renowned teacher,
Nikephoros Blemmydes Nikephoros Blemmydes (Latinized as Nicephorus Blemmydes; el, Νικηφόρος Βλεμμύδης, 1197–1272) was a 13th-century Byzantine author.
Biography
Blemmydes was born in 1197 in Constantinople as the second child of a physician. After ...
, to take philosophy classes from him. Blemmydes was the ''
hegumenos
Hegumen, hegumenos, or igumen ( el, ἡγούμενος, trans. ), is the title for the head of a monastery in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, similar to the title of abbot. The head of a convent of nuns is called a hegumenia ...
'' (abbot) of a monastery at
Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
. Theodore attended his philosophy classes while he was staying in his father's winter palace at nearby
Nymphaion. Blemmydes' zealous
Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism ( ) is a philosophical tradition inspired by the work of Aristotle, usually characterized by deductive logic and an analytic inductive method in the study of natural philosophy and metaphysics. It covers the treatment of the socia ...
had a strong impact on Theodore, who often mentioned Aristotelian notions, like
potentiality and actuality
In philosophy, potentiality and actuality are a pair of closely connected principles which Aristotle used to analyze motion, causality, ethics, and physiology in his ''Physics'', ''Metaphysics'', ''Nicomachean Ethics'', and ''De Anima''.
The c ...
, in his writings. Blemmydes was accused of
embezzlement
Embezzlement is a crime that consists of withholding assets for the purpose of conversion of such assets, by one or more persons to whom the assets were entrusted, either to be held or to be used for specific purposes. Embezzlement is a type ...
by one of his students early in the 1240s. Although Vatatzes' intervention saved him from imprisonment, he abandoned teaching. Theodore continued to visit Blemmydes regularly and maintained a correspondence with him. A young scholar,
George Akropolites George Akropolites ( Latinized as Acropolites or Acropolita; el, , ''Georgios Akropolites''; 1217 or 1220 – 1282) was a Byzantine Greek historian and statesman born at Constantinople.
Life
In his sixteenth year he was sent by his father, the ...
, replaced Blemmydes as Theodore's principal tutor. Born in Constantinople, Akropolites had firsthand experience with the Latin rule in the city. He completed Theodore's education in logic and mathematics.
Theodore's mother died late in 1239. Vatatzes remarried in late summer of 1240, taking an illegitimate daughter of
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor,
Constanza, whose name was changed to Anna. She was around ten and Vatatzes started a scandalous affair with one of her Italian ladies-in-waiting, named Marchesina. She was granted the right to wear purple shoes and to harness her horse with purple trappings, like the Emperor's closest relatives.
Youth
First administrative tasks
![149 - John III Doukas Vatatzes (Mutinensis - color)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/149_-_John_III_Doukas_Vatatzes_%28Mutinensis_-_color%29.png)
If Vatatzes followed the practice of his predecessors, Theodore was proclaimed co-ruler while still a child. In his history, Akropolites mentioned Theodore as a co-emperor when narrating events that occurred from 1235 to 1237 and in 1242. In his correspondence, Theodore referred to himself as "my imperial majesty" from around 1242. He was not crowned during his father's lifetime—a likely explanation for the denial of his co-emperorship by two later Byzantine historians,
George Pachymeres
George Pachymeres ( el, Γεώργιος Παχυμέρης, Geórgios Pachyméris; 1242 – 1310) was a Byzantine Greek historian, philosopher, music theorist and miscellaneous writer.
Biography
Pachymeres was born at Nicaea, in Bithynia, wher ...
and
Nicephorus Gregoras
Nicephorus Gregoras (; Greek: , ''Nikephoros Gregoras''; c. 1295 – 1360) was a Greek astronomer, historian, and theologian.
Life
Gregoras was born at Heraclea Pontica, where he was raised and educated by his uncle, John, who was the Bisho ...
. Theodore's authority was considerable: he granted estates and salaries and intervened in legal disputes. On Blemmydes' petition, he ordered
Nikephoros, the
metropolitan bishop of Ephesus, to return an allegedly unlawfully purchased piece of land to Blemmydes' monastery. During his father's absence, he presided over sessions of the privy council and proposed candidates to vacant Church offices.
John III Vatatzes again
laid siege to Constantinople in May 1241, but he quickly realized he could not capture the city. He started peace negotiations, and Theodore accompanied his father to the meetings with the Latin envoys. They signed a two-year truce on 24 June. John II Asen died in the same month and his death weakened Bulgaria. Vatatzes launched a military campaign against the Bulgarians' Epirote allies late in 1241. Before departing for the military campaign, he appointed Theodore his lieutenant in Asia Minor. Theodore, like his father and grandfather, held an
itinerant court
An itinerant court was a migratory form of government, common in European kingdoms in the Early Middle Ages.
It was an alternative to having a capital city, a permanent political centre from which a kingdom is governed. Especially medieval Wester ...
and visited most Anatolian towns and villages.
At this time, a
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
general,
Baiju,
invaded
An invasion is a military offensive in which large numbers of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter territory owned by another such entity, generally with the objective of either: conquering; liberating or re-establishing con ...
Nicaea's eastern neighbor, the
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
fa, سلجوقیان روم ()
, status =
, government_type = Hereditary monarchyTriarchy (1249–1254)Diarchy (1257–1262)
, year_start = 1077
, year_end = 1308
, p1 = By ...
, from the east and captured
Erzurum
Erzurum (; ) is a city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city and capital of Erzurum Province and is 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 367,250 in 2010.
The city uses the double-headed eagle as ...
. Theodore informed his father, who was besieging
Thessalonica
Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
, but Vatatzes did not abandon the siege. His persistence was rewarded when the ruler of Thessalonica
John Komnenos Doukas
John Komnenos Doukas ( el, Ιωάννης Κομνηνός Δούκας, ''Iōannēs Komnēnos Doúkas''), Latinized as Comnenus Ducas, was ruler of Thessalonica from 1237 until his death in 1244.
John was the eldest son of Theodore Komnenos Do ...
renounced the title of emperor in return for the Byzantine court title of
despot from Vatatzes. The Mongols launched a new military campaign against the Seljuks and routed Sultan
Kaykhusraw II at the
Battle of Köse Dağ
The Battle of Köse Dağ was fought between the Sultanate of Rum ruled by the Seljuq dynasty and the Mongol Empire on June 26, 1243, at the defile of Köse Dağ, a location between Erzincan and Gümüşhane in modern northeastern Turkey. The M ...
on 26 June 1243. After the Seljuks agreed to pay a yearly tribute to the Mongols, Nicaea remained the only Anatolian state that preserved full independence. The fear of a Mongol invasion became a constant element of Nicaean diplomacy.
Vatatzes again charged Theodore with the administration of Asia Minor when he launched a new military campaign in Thrace in 1246. After Vatatzes captured
Serres
Sérres ( el, Σέρρες ) is a city in Macedonia, Greece, capital of the Serres regional unit and second largest city in the region of Central Macedonia, after Thessaloniki.
Serres is one of the administrative and economic centers of Northe ...
, the leading citizens of Thessalonica did not risk a prolonged siege. They opened the gates of their city and paid voluntary homage to Vatatzes. As most Macedonian towns followed their example, Vatatzes almost doubled his empire's territory.
Friends
![150 - Theodore II Laskaris (Mutinensis - color)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/150_-_Theodore_II_Laskaris_%28Mutinensis_-_color%29.png)
Theodore forged a bond of close friendship with a circle of young intellectuals. All born after the Latin conquest of Constantinople, they did not experience the shock of exile, unlike many of their fathers' "humiliated generation" (as Patriarch
Germanus II of Constantinople referred to them). His friends' companionship helped Theodore come through his periods of melancholy, likely caused by anxiety over his public duties. His closest friend,
George Mouzalon
George Mouzalon ( el, Γεώργιος Μουζάλων, Geōrgios Mouzalōn; – 25 August 1258) was a high official of the Empire of Nicaea under Theodore II Laskaris ().
Of humble origin, he became Theodore's companion in childhood and was ...
, was a page in his retinue during their childhood. The three Mouzalon brothers—George, Theodore and Andronikos—were, in Blemmydes's words, "of despicably low birth", but they were talented singers and musicians. Most of Theodore's other confidants, like
Joseph Mesopotamites and
Konstas Hagiotheodorites, were related to high-ranking officials and churchmen.
Theodore often made fun of bishops for their self-aggrandizement, their barbaric speech or ignorantly heretical statements, or even for their physical appearance. Theodore was also the subject of mockery: his fellow students teased him for his style of argument during philosophical discussions. Critical remarks made by bishops and aristocrats were more dangerous. Metropolitan Nikephoros of Ephesus rebuked Theodore for his pride and for his non-observance of the rules of
fasting
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
. A military commander, Kalothetos, made disrespectful remarks about Theodore. The relationship between Theodore and the governor at Thessalonica,
Theodore Philes Theodore Philes ( el, ) was a Byzantine nobleman and governor of Thessalonica in the mid-13th century.
Theodore is the first notable member of the Philes family.Trapp (1991), p. 1650 He was appointed governor of Thessalonica by the Nicaean empero ...
, was extremely tense. Philes circulated defamatory poems about Theodore's alleged affair with an unnamed woman, while Theodore blamed Philes for the murder of Theodore's friend, Tribides. Tribides' fate shows that Theodore could send his confidants to the newly conquered European territories during his father's reign. Philes' accusations reached the ears of Blemmydes who did not tolerate sexual misconduct. Around 1248, Blemmydes had denied Marchesina and her retinue entry to his monastery at Ephesus. Now, he addressed a
mirror for princes
Mirrors for princes ( la, specula principum) or mirrors of princes, are an educational literary genre, in a loose sense of the word, of politics, political writings during the Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, the late middle ages and the Re ...
(instruction), entitled ''Imperial Statue'', to Theodore and his father, warning them against lechery and squandering public funds. Theodore could not convince him of his innocence.
Towards sole rule
Vatatzes was making preparations for a new attack on Constantinople, but the ruler of Epirus,
Michael II Komnenos Doukas, invaded Nicaean territory in Macedonia in the spring of 1252. Vatatzes appointed Theodore his viceroy in Asia Minor and launched a counter-attack against Michael II, forcing him to return to Epirus. Elena of Bulgaria died unexpectedly before the end of August. Theodore mourned his wife for more than the customary forty days. He abandoned fasting and wearing black only on his father's command. His wife's death intensified Theodore's melancholy. He secluded himself in the palace and dedicated his time to philosophical studies and writing. He only resumed his regular visits to the towns of Asia Minor in 1253.
Early in 1253, Emperor Frederick II's son and successor,
Conrad, forced most relatives of his father's mistress,
Bianca Lancia
Bianca Lancia d'Agliano (also called Beatrice and Blanca; c. 1210 – c. 1246) was an Italian noblewoman.Frederick II (Holy Roman Emperor), ''De Arte Venardi Cum Avibus'', transl. & ed. Casey A Wood and F. Marjorie Fyfe, (Stanford University Press ...
, into exile. They fled to Nicaea and sought asylum from Bianca's daughter, Empress Constanza-Anna. Since his father was staying in Thrace, the exiles were received by Theodore. Conrad changed his mind and sent the erudite
Berthold of Hohenburg
Berthold or Berchtold is a Germanic given name and surname. It is derived from two elements, ''berht'' meaning "bright" and ''wald'' meaning "(to) rule". It may refer to:
*Bertholdt Hoover, a fictional List_of_Attack_on_Titan_characters, character ...
, an in-law of the Lancias, to Nicaea to begin negotiations with them. While waiting for his father's return from Thrace, Theodore had philosophical conversations with Hohenburg. The study of ancient Greek philosophers had intensified in Europe, and Hohenburg asked Theodore for Greek philosophical works. This request reinforced Theodore's pride in the Greeks' ancient heritage, and he decided to publish his own works.
Vatatzes returned to Nicaea in the winter of 1253. Early in 1254, he fell ill suddenly and never fully recovered. His illness made Theodore the actual ruler of the empire, but the change in his position did not prevent him from making arrangements for the publications of his works. His father was still alive when news of the Mongols' preparations for a new invasion of Asia Minor reached Nicaea.
Reign
![Hyperpyron of Theodore II (reverse)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Hyperpyron_of_Theodore_II_%28reverse%29.jpg)
Ascension
John III Vatatzes died in Nicaea on 4 November 1254, leaving a flourishing empire to Theodore. Theodore was acclaimed emperor, but he was not crowned because the patriarchal throne was vacant. In his funerary speech at Vatatzes' burial, Akropolites expressed his hope that Theodore would lead the Nicaeans to expel the Latins from Constantinople, comparing him with the "
pillar of fire" of the
Book of Exodus
The Book of Exodus (from grc, Ἔξοδος, translit=Éxodos; he, שְׁמוֹת ''Šəmōṯ'', "Names") is the second book of the Bible. It narrates the story of the Exodus, in which the Israelites leave slavery in Biblical Egypt through t ...
, guiding the
Israelites
The Israelites (; , , ) were a group of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan.
The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele o ...
. Theodore could not actually risk launching an attack against Constantinople, because his empire was surrounded by hostile powers.
Theodore forbade his father's widow, Anna-Constanza, from returning to her Sicilian homeland. This act outraged her brother,
Manfred
''Manfred: A dramatic poem'' is a closet drama written in 1816–1817 by Lord Byron. It contains supernatural elements, in keeping with the popularity of the ghost story in England at the time. It is a typical example of a Gothic fiction.
Byr ...
, who had recently become the actual ruler of the
Kingdom of Sicily
The Kingdom of Sicily ( la, Regnum Siciliae; it, Regno di Sicilia; scn, Regnu di Sicilia) was a state that existed in the south of the Italian Peninsula and for a time the region of Ifriqiya from its founding by Roger II of Sicily in 1130 un ...
. Theodore had a meeting with the Seljuk Sultan of Rum,
Kaykaus II, in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Sinc ...
. They concluded a defensive alliance against the Mongols. Kaykaus had acknowledged the Mongols'
suzerainty
Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is cal ...
, but had not visited the court of Great Khan
Möngke to pay homage to him.
Theodore wanted to make Blemmydes the new patriarch, but his old tutor refused. His next candidate, a
hermit
A hermit, also known as an eremite (adjectival form: hermitic or eremitic) or solitary, is a person who lives in seclusion. Eremitism plays a role in a variety of religions.
Description
In Christianity, the term was originally applied to a Ch ...
with an aristocratic background,
Arsenios Autoreianos
Arsenios Autoreianos (Latinized as Arsenius Autorianus) ( el, Ἀρσένιος Ἀυτωρειανός), ( 30 September 1273), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, lived about the middle of the 13th century.
Born in Constantinople c. 1200, A ...
, accepted the offer. The new patriarch crowned and anointed Theodore emperor—according to scholarly consensus, on Christmas 1254. Arsenios' allegedly irregular appointment would give rise to the conflict known as "Arsenite Schism", lasting from 1265 to 1310. Arsenios was always Theodore's loyal supporter and obeyed his commands.
Theodore did not trust the aristocrats and wrote of "illicit love affairs and very unjust plots", without naming his opponents, in a letter addressed to George Mouzalon in December 1254. Historian
Michael Angold
Michael Angold (born 1940) is Professor Emeritus of Byzantine History and Honorary Fellow in the University of Edinburgh.
Biography
Michael Angold was educated at the University of Oxford (Bachelor of Arts, BA, Doctor of Philosophy, D.Phil.). He ...
proposes that Emperor Frederick II's similar policy may have inspired Theodore's "more autocratic stance towards his aristocracy". Theodore appointed George Mouzalon to be the commander-in-chief of the mobile army as the new ''
megas domestikos
The title of grand domestic ( grc-gre, μέγας δομέστικος, ''mégas doméstikos'') was given in the 11th–15th centuries to the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army, directly below the Byzantine Emperor. It evolved from the earl ...
''. George's brother, Andronikos, was designated as the new ''
protovestiarites
The ( gr, βεστιαρῖται, singular: βεστιαρίτης) were a corps of imperial bodyguards and fiscal officials in the Byzantine Empire, attested from the 11th to the 15th centuries.
History and functions
The appear in the mid-11th ...
'' (commander of the guards of the imperial palace). Theodore also demonstrated his favor towards a general of common origin,
Constantine Margarites. He offered offices to some aristocrats who had been put aside during his father's reign. He recalled his mother's uncles, Michael and Manuel Laskaris, from their exile and made two members of the rebellious Nestongos family, George and Isaac, generals. His appointments offended most aristocrats.
Wars with Bulgaria
The young Bulgarian Tzar,
Michael II Asen, exploited Vatatzes' death to reconquer the lands he had seized from Bulgaria after 1241. Michael invaded Macedonia and Thrace in December 1254 or January 1255. Most Nicaean garrisons at the fortresses were small, and the local Bulgarians supported the invaders. The Bulgarians quickly seized most Thracian fortresses. Two Macedonian towns,
Veles and
Skopje
Skopje ( , , ; mk, Скопје ; sq, Shkup) is the capital and largest city of North Macedonia. It is the country's political, cultural, economic, and academic centre.
The territory of Skopje has been inhabited since at least 4000 BC; r ...
, also surrendered to them. A hastily summoned council of war accepted George Mouzalon's proposal of an immediate counter-attack. Theodore decided to lead the campaign himself, and entrusted Mouzalon with the administration of Asia Minor in February 1255. His surprise attack forced the invaders to withdraw from Thrace, and he ordered two aristocrats,
Alexios Strategopoulos
Alexios Komnenos Strategopoulos ( gr, Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνὸς Στρατηγόπουλος) was a Byzantine aristocrat and general who rose to the rank of ''megas domestikos'' and ''Caesar''. Distantly related to the Komnenian dynasty, ...
and
Demetrios Tornikes
Demetrius is the Latinization of names, Latinized form of the Ancient Greek male name, male Greek given names, given name ''Dēmḗtrios'' (), meaning “Demetris” - "devoted to goddess Demeter".
Alternate forms include Demetrios, Dimitrios, ...
, to chase the Bulgarians. The two generals led their troops across the passes of the
Rhodope Mountains
The Rhodopes (; bg, Родопи, ; el, Ροδόπη, ''Rodopi''; tr, Rodoplar) are a mountain range in Southeastern Europe, and the largest by area in Bulgaria, with over 83% of its area in the southern part of the country and the remainder in ...
in constant fear of an ambush. When they unexpectedly heard the sounds of the horns of shepherds and swineherds, they broke into a run in panic, abandoning their baggage. The fiasco outraged Theodore, and he ordered them to hurry to his camp at
Adrianople
Edirne (, ), formerly known as Adrianople or Hadrianopolis (Greek: Άδριανούπολις), is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern part of the province of Edirne in Eastern Thrace. Situated from the Greek and from the Bulgarian borders, ...
, but both commanders disobeyed.
A Bulgarian renegade in Nicaean service, Dragotas, switched sides and laid siege to
Melnik in the summer. Theodore hastily departed from Adrianople to lead relief forces to the town. The Bulgarians lay an ambush for him along the
Rupel Pass
The Rupel () is a tidal river in northern Belgium, right tributary of the Scheldt. It is about long. It flows through the Belgian province of Antwerp. It is formed by the confluence of the rivers Dijle and Nete, in Rumst. It flows into the Sch ...
, but he avoided it and Dragotas abandoned the siege on Theodore's arrival. From Melnik, Theodore went to Thessalonica and dismissed his old opponent, Philes, from the governorship. He closed down the local
mint
MiNT is Now TOS (MiNT) is a free software alternative operating system kernel for the Atari ST system and its successors. It is a multi-tasking alternative to TOS and MagiC. Together with the free system components fVDI device drivers, XaAES g ...
, because he wanted to establish a centralized system of financial administration in Asia Minor, with a new treasury at Astritzion on the Asian coast of the
Hellespont
The Dardanelles (; tr, Çanakkale Boğazı, lit=Strait of Çanakkale, el, Δαρδανέλλια, translit=Dardanéllia), also known as the Strait of Gallipoli from the Gallipoli peninsula or from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont (; ...
. Theodore invaded Macedonia and forced the Bulgarian garrison in Veles to surrender, but drought prevented him from continuing the military campaign across the arid
Ovče Pole
Ovče Pole ( mk, Овче Поле, literally 'sheep plain') is a plain near Sveti Nikole's River, which is a tributary of the Bregalnica River in east-central North Macedonia.
History
The Battle of Ovche Pole occurred during the First World War ...
. He went to Serres, where he confirmed the fiscal privileges of Macedonian towns. He also ordered the arrest of
Constantine Kabasilas,
Archbishop of Ohrid The Archbishop of Ohrid is a historic title given to the primate of the Archbishopric of Ohrid. The whole original title of the primate was Archbishop of Justiniana Prima and all Bulgaria ( gr, ἀρχιεπίσκοπὴ τῆς Πρώτης Ἰου ...
, assuming that Kabasilas was Michael II of Epirus' loyal supporter.
A report about a Mongol invasion of Asia Minor forced Theodore to leave Macedonia in late autumn of 1255. After the report had proved false, he launched an attack against the fortress of
Tzepaina. He had to abandon the campaign, because his army could not pass across the narrow and frosty mountain passes. He returned to Anatolia around the end of the year. He showered his confidants with honors and gifts. He made Manuel Laskaris and Constantine Margarites the commanders-in-chief of his troops in Thrace and charged George Mouzalon with implementing military reforms. He also ordered the punishment of members of old aristocratic families. Constantine Strategopoulos and Theodore Philes were blinded; Alexios Strategopoulos and
Alexios Raoul Alexios Raoul ( el, ; died c. 1258) was a Byzantine aristocrat and general of the Empire of Nicaea. He attained the rank of ''protovestiarios'' during the reign of Emperor John III Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254).
Biography
Alexios Raoul was the scion ...
's four sons were imprisoned. Theodore's cousin,
Michael Palaiologos, fled to the Seljuks to escape imprisonment. Theodore took advantage of the emperors' right to control aristocratic marriages to establish family ties between his lowborn favorites and the old aristocracy. George Mouzalon married Palaiologos' niece,
Theodora Kantakouzene Palaiologina, Andronikos Mouzalon wed a daughter of Alexios Raoul.
Theodore decided to resume negotiations about a
church union
Church union is the name given to a merger of two or more Christian denominations. Such unions may take on many forms, including a united church and a federation.
United churches
{{main, United and uniting churches
A united church is the resu ...
with
Pope Alexander IV and sent envoys to Rome in April or May 1256. Divergent views on the
procession of the Holy Spirit
For the majority of Christian denominations, the Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost, is believed to be the third person of the Trinity, a Triune God manifested as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, each entity itself being God.Grudem ...
had always been an important cause of the
schism
A schism ( , , or, less commonly, ) is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what had previously been a single religious body, suc ...
between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Orthodox theologians maintained that the
Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone, while Catholic theologians stated that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the
Father
A father is the male parent of a child. Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his children, the father may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with the child that carries with it certain rights and obligations. An adoptive fathe ...
"
and the Son". Theodore commissioned Blemmydes to summarize the Orthodox position. Blemmydes adopted a conciliatory approach, concluding that a statement about the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father through the
Son
A son is a male offspring; a boy or a man in relation to his parents. The female counterpart is a daughter. From a biological perspective, a son constitutes a first degree relative.
Social issues
In pre-industrial societies and some current c ...
was fully in conformity with the Bible and the
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical per ...
' works. Theodore did not accept his tutor's view and insisted on the traditional Orthodox doctrine.
![Aspron trachy of Theodore II Laskaris](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Aspron_trachy_of_Theodore_II_Laskaris.png)
Michael II of Bulgaria dispatched
Cuman
The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian language, Russian Exonym and endonym, exonym ), were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confede ...
raiders to plunder Thrace early in 1256. Although Theodore had instructed Laskaris and Margarites to adopt a defensive strategy, they pursued the Cumans, but the invaders inflicted a heavy defeat on their troops. Theodore assembled a new army, partially mustered among the Anatolian peasantry, and crossed the Hellespont. He sent troops, including Cuman horsemen in his service, against the invaders and they routed the enemy forces in two battles in Thrace. He entered into peace negotiations with Michael II with the mediation of
Rostislav Mikhailovich
Rostislav Mikhailovich ( hu, Rosztyiszláv, Bulgarian and Russian: Ростислав Михайлович) (after 1210 / c. 1225 – 1262) was a Rus' prince (a member of the Rurik dynasty), and a dignitary in the Kingdom of Hungary.
He was pri ...
,
Duke of Macsó. Michael II had recently married Rostislav's daughter and Rostislav's wife,
Anna of Hungary, was Theodore's cousin. Rostislav came to Thrace to reach an agreement with Theodore. Akropolites drafted a treaty about the restoration of the prewar boundaries between Nicaea and Bulgaria. Rostislav accepted it and signed the peace treaty on Michael II's behalf on 29 June. The treaty prescribed that Michael II cede Tzepaina to the Nicaeans, but the Bulgarian garrison was not withdrawn immediately from the fortress. Theodore became convinced that Rostislav had deceived him and ordered the public whipping of Akropolites. His act proved imprudent, because the Bulgarians ceded the fortress in early September. Theodore sent George Mouzalon to Akropolites to seek a reconciliation.
The peace treaty aroused much indignation in Bulgaria, enabling Michael II's cousin,
Kaliman, to stage a plot and dethrone the Tzar. Kaliman seized the throne, but he never gained the support of the army. After he fell victim to a new plot, Rostislav Mikhailovich and Michael II's brother-in-law,
Mitso, laid claim to the throne. Most
boyar
A boyar or bolyar was a member of the highest rank of the Feudalism, feudal nobility in many Eastern European states, including Kievan Rus', Bulgarian Empire, Bulgaria, Russian nobility, Russia, Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia, Wallachia and ...
s (noblemen) preferred a third candidate, one of their number,
Konstantin Tih
Konstantin Tih ( bg, Константин Тих Асен) or Constantine I Tikh (Константин I), was the tsar of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277, he was offered the throne from Mitso Asen. He led the Bulgarian Empire at a time when the nearb ...
, although he was not related to the ruling
Asen dynasty
The Asen dynasty ( bg, Асеневци, ''Asenevtsi'') founded and ruled a medieval Bulgarian state, called in modern historiography the Second Bulgarian Empire, between 1185 and 1280.
The Asen dynasty rose as the leaders of Bulgaria after a r ...
.
Expansion
Theodore's war against Bulgaria brought about a rapprochement between Epirus and Serbia. Michael II of Epirus made a formal alliance with
Stefan Uroš I,
King of Serbia
This is an archontological list of Serbian monarchs, containing monarchs of the medieval principalities, to heads of state of modern Serbia.
The Serbian monarchy dates back to the Early Middle Ages. The Serbian royal titles used include Knya ...
. He also sent gifts to the Albanian chiefs who had acknowledged Nicaean suzerainty to gain their support. Theodore's daughter, Maria, and Michael II's son and heir,
Nikephoros, had been engaged during Vatatzes' reign. After making peace with the Bulgarians, Theodore ordered Michael II to send Nikephoros to Thessalonica to wed Maria. Nikephoros was accompanied by his mother,
Theodora Petraliphaina
Theodora Petraliphaina ( el, Θεοδώρα Πετραλίφαινα), canonized as Saint Theodora of Arta ( el, Αγία Θεοδώρα της Άρτας; ca. 1225 – after 1270), was a consort of Epirus and an Orthodox Christian saint.
Li ...
. Theodore took her into custody, only allowing her to return to Epirus after Michael II ceded
Servia and
Dyrrachium to him. The possession of the two towns secured the Nicaean control of the
Via Egnatia
The Via Egnatia was a road constructed by the Romans in the 2nd century BC. It crossed Illyricum, Macedonia, and Thracia, running through territory that is now part of modern Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . of ...
, but Michael II remained hostile to Theodore.
Theodore received the
papal legate
300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the pope's legate.
A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title ''legatus'') is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic ...
, Bishop Constantine of
Orvieto
Orvieto () is a city and ''comune'' in the Province of Terni, southwestern Umbria, Italy, situated on the flat summit of a large butte of volcanic tuff. The city rises dramatically above the almost-vertical faces of tuff cliffs that are compl ...
, in Thessalonica. Their negotiations proved fruitless, because the legate's authorization was limited and Theodore was unwilling to make concessions for the church union. He also preserved the right to convoke the Orthodox bishops to a synod to discuss the conditions of the union. Theodore maintained a correspondence with the Holy See, but he did not initiate new negotiations with it.
The Mongols invaded Asia Minor and defeated Kaykaus II on 14 October 1256. Theodore hurried back to Anatolia to oversee the preparations for the defense. Kaykaus sought asylum in Nicaea and the Mongols installed his brother,
Kilij Arslan IV, as the new sultan of Rum. Theodore assembled his troops on the plains near
Magnesia. The Mongol ruler of Persia, the
Ilkhan
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm, ...
Hülagü, sent a delegation to Theodore to begin negotiations about Kaykaus' future. Hülegü agreed to withdraw his army from Rum and ordered the division of the sultanate between Kaykaus and Kilij Arslan in the spring of 1257. Before leaving for Rum, Kaykaus ceded four fortresses in the valley of the river
Lycus to Nicaea in return for a contingent of 300 auxiliary troops. His achievements made Theodore self-confident. He proudly stated that his empire included territories as far as Dyrrachium on the
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to t ...
and
Cape Karambis on the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
. His success during the war against Bulgaria had convinced him he should recruit soldiers from among Anatolian peasants. In a letter to Blemmydes, he stated that the native "
Hellenes
The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, other ...
" were more reliable than foreign mercenaries.
Illness and death
![1263 Mediterranean Sea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/1263_Mediterranean_Sea.svg)
Theodore fell seriously ill in November 1257. George Pachymeres, who was less than sixteen years old at the time, diagnosed his illness as epilepsy, mentioning that Theodore had often lost consciousness and "collapsed to the ground". Pachymeres also described Theodore's unusual appointments and his attempts to forge marriage alliances between aristocrats and commoners as symptoms of his disease. Akropolites only noticed extreme weight loss, reducing Theodore's entire body to a skeleton, while Blemmydes described Theodore's illness as "a scourge and a strange disease", also mentioning Theodore's melancholy and phobias. Theodore himself wrote of insufferable aching and paralysis in the arms. Modern historians of diseases have not agreed on a diagnosis of Theodore's illness. John Lascaratos and Panaghiotis V. Zis maintain that Pachymeres' diagnosis was correct, concluding that Theodore developed
epilepsy of the tonic-clonic type in his late twenties. Historian
Donald M. Nicol
Donald MacGillivray Nicol, (4 February 1923 – 25 September 2003) was an English Byzantinist.
Life
Nicol was born in Portsmouth, Hampshire, to a Church of Scotland minister, and received a classical education at King Edward VII School i ...
proposes that Theodore's illness "made him the prey of his moods, and he compensated for his nervousness by an autocratic and obstinate temper". Medical historian Georgios Makris, however, concludes in his 1995 study on epilepsy in the Byzantine Empire that Theodore did not have epilepsy. Historian Dimiter Angelov, who does not accept Pachymeres' diagnosis, proposes that Theodore most likely had cancer of the brain, the spine, or the lungs.
His illness prevented Theodore from commanding his troops in person. The commanders of the army in Macedonia, most of them of humble origin, recently appointed by Theodore, could not prevent the Epirotes, Albanians and Serbians from raiding Nicaean territories. Stefan Uroš I defeated the Nicaean troops near
Prilep
Prilep ( mk, Прилеп ) is the fourth-largest city in North Macedonia. It has a population of 66,246 and is known as "the city under Marko's Towers" because of its proximity to the towers of Prince Marko.
Name
The name of Prilep appear ...
. Michael II's sister-in-law, Maria Petraliphaina, entered into a correspondence with Theodore's commander,
Constantine Chabaron, making him believe that she was eager to marry him, but Chabaron was captured during their meeting. Theodore's newly assembled army of Anatolian peasants was routed at
Edessa
Edessa (; grc, Ἔδεσσα, Édessa) was an ancient city (''polis'') in Upper Mesopotamia, founded during the Hellenistic period by King Seleucus I Nicator (), founder of the Seleucid Empire. It later became capital of the Kingdom of Osroene ...
. Michael Palaiologos, who had been allowed to return from his exile, lead a new army to Macedonia. He defeated the Epirotes, but Theodore ordered him to return instead of marching to Prilep. Palaiologos' withdrawal enabled Michael II to seize Prilep and capture Akropolites, who was its governor. Michael II was planning to launch an attack against Thessalonica, but Manfred of Sicily renewed his predecessors' claim to Byzantine territories and invaded Epirus from the west. Michael II, who did not want to abandon his plan, concluded an alliance with Manfred who expelled the Nicaean garrisons from Dyrrachium and other fortresses on the Adriatic by the end of February 1258.
Konstantin Tih of Bulgaria repudiated his first wife and sued for the hand of Theodore's eldest daughter,
Irene
Irene is a name derived from εἰρήνη (eirēnē), the Greek for "peace".
Irene, and related names, may refer to:
* Irene (given name)
Places
* Irene, Gauteng, South Africa
* Irene, South Dakota, United States
* Irene, Texas, United Stat ...
. He knew that his marriage to Irene, who was Tzar Ivan Asen II's granddaughter, could strengthen his claim to rule. Theodore wanted to confirm his peace treaty with Bulgaria and accepted Konstantin Tih's offer. Irene went to Bulgaria to marry Konstantin Tih.
Theodore rarely left his palace at Magnesia during the last months of his life. He was convinced that sorcery caused his illness and accused his courtiers of casting spells on him, sending many of them for trial. Michael Palaiologos's sister, Maria-Martha, was the most famous victim of Theodore's paranoia. Theodore had forced her daughter, Theodora, to marry the elderly Basil Kaballarios, but the marriage was never
consummated
In many traditions and statutes of civil or religious law, the consummation of a marriage, often called simply ''consummation'', is the first (or first officially credited) act of sexual intercourse between two people, following their marriage t ...
. After Kaballarios had attributed his impotence to his mother-in-law's spells, Theodore had her put into a sack filled with cats that tore her flesh. She was only released because Theodore suddenly panicked, fearing her spells. Also fearing her brother's revenge, Theodore had Michael Palaiologos imprisoned on charges of poisoning, but soon set him free. Theodore named his seven-year-old son,
John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Second ...
, as his sole heir, appointing George Mouzalon regent until John came of age. He became a monk, but he kept his baptismal name. He summarized his sins in a treatise and asked the patriarchal synod to grant him absolution. He died in the imperial palace at Magnesia on 16 August 1258.
['']ODB ODB may refer to:
People
* Ol' Dirty Bastard (1968–2004), American rapper and founding member of the Wu-Tang Clan
* ODB (wrestler) (born 1978), Stage name of American professional wrestler Jessica Kresa
* Original David Baker (born 1972), a monik ...
'', p. 2039 He was buried next to his father in the Sosandra monastery on
Mount Sipylus
Mount Spil ( tr, Spil Dağı), the ancient Mount Sipylus ( grc, Σίπυλος) (elevation ), is a mountain rich in legends and history in Manisa Province, Turkey, in what used to be the heartland of the Lydians and what is now Turkey's Aegean Re ...
. His grave and the monastery were destroyed after the Turkish conquest of the region in the 14th century.
The aristocrats had taken an oath of loyalty to Mouzalon at Theodore's deathbed, but they soon began conspiring against him. In ten days, Mouzalon was murdered, and Michael Palaiologos assumed the regency for the child-emperor, John IV Laskaris. Palaiologos convinced the aristocrats that an empire ruled by a boy could not resist enemy attacks, and he was proclaimed co-emperor as Michael VIII before the end of the year. When Michael VIII and John IV were crowned together early in 1259, the Patriarch put the crown first on Michael VIII's head. After concluding an
agreement Agreement may refer to:
Agreements between people and organizations
* Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law
* Trade agreement, between countries
* Consensus, a decision-making process
* Contract, enforceable in a court of law
** Meeting o ...
with
Genoa
Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the List of cities in Italy, sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian ce ...
against the Latin Empire, he dispatched Alexios Strategopoulos to spy on the defences of Constantinople. Taking advantage of the absence of the bulk of the Latin army, Strategopoulos seized Constantinople by a surprise attack on 25 July 1261. Michael VIII was crowned for the second time, alone, in the
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia ( 'Holy Wisdom'; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque ( tr, Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi), is a mosque and major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The cathedral was originally built as a Greek Ortho ...
. The child John IV was
blinded on 25 December 1261, which prevented him from ruling. In order to emphasize that the Laskaris family had lost their imperial status, Michael VIII married off his three sisters to minor Italian and Bulgarian noblemen.
Scholarship
A man of letters devoted to philosophical and theological studies, Theodore transformed his court into a center for renowned scholars shortly after his ascension to the throne. He ordered that books that he and his father had collected in urban libraries be available to all who wanted to read them. He began to write treatises on philosophical, theological and historical subjects already during his father's lifetime, but he decided to prepare manuscript editions of his works only after his meeting with Berthold of Hohenburg in 1253. His works were collected in four
codices
The codex (plural codices ) was the historical ancestor of the modern book. Instead of being composed of sheets of paper, it used sheets of vellum, papyrus, or other materials. The term ''codex'' is often used for ancient manuscript books, with ...
, but only three survived.
Theodore's ''Satire of the Tutor'', written most likely in 1240, is his earliest extant work. The satire is dedicated to his principal tutor, portraying him as an under-educated and rude man, who learned magic while staying in Bulgaria. He also wrote
encomia
''Encomium'' is a Latin word deriving from the Ancient Greek ''enkomion'' (), meaning "the praise of a person or thing." Another Latin equivalent is ''laudatio'', a speech in praise of someone or something.
Originally was the song sung by the c ...
in praise of the citizens of Nicaea, his father and Akropolites. Theodore's theological works—including his ''First Oration against the Latins, or, on the Procession of the Holy Spirit'', and his treatise ''On the Trinity''—demonstrate his adherence to Orthodox theology. Theodore's ''Great Supplicatory Canon to Our Lady'', a hymn to the
Virgin Mary
Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother o ...
, is his best known work. He composed it just months before his death and it is still sung in Orthodox ceremonies.
Family
Neither Theodore nor Elena had reached the minimum legal age of marriage—fourteen for boys and twelve for girls—when they were married, but such an early marriage was not unique among Nicaean aristocrats and commoners. She was born to Ivan Asen II and
Maria of Hungary in 1224. The wedding took place at
Lampsakos in early 1235. Two years later, before launching an invasion of Nicaean territories in Thrace, her father forced Elena to return to Bulgaria, but peace was restored between the two empires and Elena returned to Theodore before the end of the year. Years later, Theodore described Elena as the flower of his youth and stated that their "bond of incomparable love" made them "happier than all people". Her sudden death in the spring or summer of 1252 plunged Theodore into grief. She gave birth to four or five daughters, and one son. Their children were:
*
Irene
Irene is a name derived from εἰρήνη (eirēnē), the Greek for "peace".
Irene, and related names, may refer to:
* Irene (given name)
Places
* Irene, Gauteng, South Africa
* Irene, South Dakota, United States
* Irene, Texas, United Stat ...
, who married
Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria
Konstantin Tih ( bg, Константин Тих Асен) or Constantine I Tikh (Константин I), was the tsar of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277, he was offered the throne from Mitso Asen. He led the Bulgarian Empire at a time when the nearb ...
, was Emperor Michael VIII's implacable enemy until her death around 1270.
*Maria, who married
Nikephoros I of Epirus, deceased between early in 1257 and 1265.
*Theodora was married off by Michael VIII to a
Moreot nobleman, ''Maïos Débélikourtos'', according to Pachymeres and
Nicephorus Gregoras
Nicephorus Gregoras (; Greek: , ''Nikephoros Gregoras''; c. 1295 – 1360) was a Greek astronomer, historian, and theologian.
Life
Gregoras was born at Heraclea Pontica, where he was raised and educated by his uncle, John, who was the Bisho ...
. Historian Albert Failler identifies him as
Matthew of Mons
Matthew may refer to:
* Matthew (given name)
* Matthew (surname)
* ''Matthew'' (ship), the replica of the ship sailed by John Cabot in 1497
* ''Matthew'' (album), a 2000 album by rapper Kool Keith
* Matthew (elm cultivar), a cultivar of the Chi ...
who held the
Barony of Veligosti
The Barony of Veligosti or Veligosti–Damala was a medieval Frankish fiefdom of the Principality of Achaea, originally centred on Veligosti ( el, Βελίγοστι or Βελιγόστη; french: Véligourt; es, Viligorda; it, Villegorde) in so ...
in the
Principality of Achaea
The Principality of Achaea () or Principality of Morea was one of the three vassal states of the Latin Empire, which replaced the Byzantine Empire after the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. It became a vassal of the Kingdom o ...
.
*
Eudoxia first married Count
William-Peter of Ventimiglia, who died around 1280. Her second husband,
Roger Arnau, Count of Pallars, died in 1288. The widowed Eudoxia had a love affair with the
Aragonese admiral
Bernat de Serria
Bernat may refer to:
People Given name
*Bernat Calbó (c. 1180–1243), Catalan jurist, bureaucrat, monk, bishop, and soldier
*Bernat Fenollar (1438–1516), Valencia poet, cleric and chess player
*Bernat Francés y Caballero, Spanish Roman Cath ...
. She died in 1309.
*A Bulgarian boyar,
Despot Jacob Svetoslav
Jacob Svetoslav ( bg, Яков Светослав, ''Yakov Svetoslav'') (ca. 1210s/1220s–1275 or 1276/1277) was a prominent 13th-century Bulgarian noble ('' bolyarin''). Bestowed the title of despot, Jacob Svetoslav was the ruler of a widely au ...
, married Theodore's unnamed daughter, according to Pachymeres. She may have been Theodore's illegitimate daughter, because other Byzantine historians failed to mention her.
*Theodore's only son,
John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Second ...
, survived his mutilation, but he spent the rest of his life in prison. He died around 1309.
See also
*
List of Byzantine emperors
This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as le ...
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
*Dimiter G. Angelov
"The 'Moral Pieces' by Theodore II Laskaris" ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'', 65/66 (2011-2012), pp. 237–269
{{DEFAULTSORT:Laskaris, Theodore 02
13th-century Byzantine emperors
13th-century Byzantine writers
13th-century Byzantine people
13th-century Greek people
13th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians
Theodore 02
Theodore 02
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars
Vatatzes family
People with epilepsy
Royalty and nobility with disabilities
1220s births
1258 deaths
Sons of Byzantine emperors