The popular uprising of 14 October 1973 ( th, เหตุการณ์ 14 ตุลา, , ; also , , ) was a watershed event in
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
's
history
History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
. The uprising resulted in the end of the ruling
military dictatorship
A military dictatorship is a dictatorship in which the military exerts complete or substantial control over political authority, and the dictator is often a high-ranked military officer.
The reverse situation is to have civilian control of the m ...
of anti-communist
Thanom Kittikachorn
Field Marshal Thanom Kittikachorn ( th, ถนอม กิตติขจร, ; 11 August 1911 – 16 June 2004) was the leader of Thailand from 1963 to 1973, during which he staged a self-coup, until public protests which exploded into viole ...
and altered the
Thai political system. Notably, it highlighted the growing influence of Thai university students in politics.
Student activism in Thailand the 1950s–1970s
Student activism in Thailand grew during the 1950s, as many students became inspired by leftist ideology to mobilize and organize demonstrations and rallies against the pro-American policies of the ruling government. The rise of university students as a political force was also due to the increase in absolute numbers of university students. From 1961 to 1972, the number of university students increased from 15,000 to 150,000, while the number of universities increased from five to seventeen.
[Prajak Kongkirati, "Thailand: The cultural Politics of Student Resistance" in Weiss, Meredith L. (ed), "Student Activism in Asia: Between Protest and Powerlessness", University Of Minnesota Press, Minnesota : 2012, pp. 234–241] Prior to 1968, student activity was confined to demonstrations of loyalty rather than demands for change or criticism of the political system. The death of
Sarit Thanarat
Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat (also spelt ''Dhanarajata''; th, สฤษดิ์ ธนะรัชต์, ; 16 June 1908 – 8 December 1963) was a Thai general who staged a coup in 1957, replacing Plaek Phibunsongkhram as Thailand's prime m ...
in December 1963 changed things as the government under Thanom was more tolerant of students and intellectuals. The publication of the ''Social Science Review'' in the 1960s was credited as being responsible for restarting intellectual thinking and debate in Thai politics. Discussion groups sprang up at major universities which developed into organized and important independent groups, e.g., the "Sapha Na Dome" and "Sethatham" and the "SOTUS" group. These independent groups in turn produced their own writings and the ''Social Science Review'' began to publish articles from them. Some of the writings were critical of the government. These groups also started to hold clandestine political seminars which encouraged students to be analytical and critical.
The National Student Center of Thailand
The student discussion groups were in many important ways different from the student unions already present on campus. They were radical and looked for new ways of interpreting Thai society and politics, often with a leftist slant. They did not organize themselves the same way the official student unions were run, i.e., on a hierarchical and politically conservative basis. These groups from different universities were able to transcend inter-university rivalry and build up contacts among themselves.
Development programs, based on those of the United States
Peace Corps
The Peace Corps is an independent agency and program of the United States government that trains and deploys volunteers to provide international development assistance. It was established in March 1961 by an executive order of President John F. ...
, took students from various campuses to work in rural areas during their vacations and forced them to recognize the problems in the countryside. The programs also served to show the students how inadequate their university training had been, as they were not able to use any of their knowledge to improve the conditions which the majority of the rural population faced.
[Elinor Bartak, "The Student Movement in Thailand: 1970-1976", Center of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, Clayton, Australia:1993]
As a consequence of the increasing collegial contact between students, the National Student Center of Thailand (NSCT) was founded in 1968. Its purpose was to represent and coordinate student action. The NSCT was to play a crucial role in the 1973 uprising. After several meetings between representatives from Thailand's universities, it was proposed that Thai students should have an inter-university organization, the NSCT. It was to include two members from each of eleven institutions:
Chulalongkorn University
Chulalongkorn University (CU, th, จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย, ), nicknamed Chula ( th, จุฬาฯ), is a public and autonomous research university in Bangkok, Thailand. The university was originally fo ...
,
Thammasat University
Thammasat University (Abbreviation, Abrv: TU th, มธ.; th, มหาวิทยาลัยธรรมศาสตร์, , ) is a public research university in Thailand with campuses in Tha Phra Chan area of Phra Nakhon District near the ...
,
Kasetsart University
Kasetsart University ( th, มหาวิทยาลัยเกษตรศาสตร์; ), commonly known and referred to as Kaset or KU, is a public research university in Bangkok, Thailand. It is the largest university in Thailand. I ...
,
Silpakorn University
Silpakorn University (SU.) ( th, มหาวิทยาลัยศิลปากร; ) is a national university in Thailand. The university was founded in Bangkok in 1943 by Tuscan–born art professor Corrado Feroci, who took the Thai name S ...
,
Mahidol University
Mahidol University (Mahidol), an autonomous research institution in Thailand, had its origin in the establishment of Siriraj Hospital in 1888. Mahidol had an acceptance rate for Medicine of 0.4% as of the 2016 academic year.
Becoming the Univers ...
,
Chiang Mai University
Chiang Mai University ( CMU; th, มหาวิทยาลัยเชียงใหม่) is a public research university in northern Thailand founded in 1964. It has a strong emphasis on engineering, science, agriculture, and medicine. It ...
,
Khon Kaen University
Khon Kaen University ( th, มหาวิทยาลัยขอนแก่น) or KKU (มข.) is a public research university, and it is one of the most prestigious universities in Thailand. The university was the first institution of highe ...
,
Prince of Songkla University
Prince of Songkla University (PSU) ( th, มหาวิทยาลัยสงขลานครินทร์; ) is the first university in southern Thailand, established in 1967. The name of the university was granted by the King Bhumibol ...
, Prasanmit Teachers College (now
Srinakharinwirot University
Srinakharinwirot University (abbr: SWU; th, มหาวิทยาลัยศรีนครินทรวิโรฒ; abbr: มศว) is a public university in Bangkok, Thailand. Founded in 1949, the university was the first upper-educati ...
), Bangsaen Teachers College (now
Burapha University
Burapha University (BUU) (Thai: มหาวิทยาลัยบูรพา) is one of Thailand's public universities. It is in the coastal town of Saen Suk, near the beach of Bangsaen in Chonburi province. It was established on 8 July 1955 ...
), and Patumwan Teachers College (now combined with Srinakharinwirot University).
In its early years, the NSCT was not particularly active, and did not organize any political activities. For example, the NSCT was not involved during the demonstrations against internal corruption at Chulalongkorn University in September 1970. Instead, it concentrated on areas such as community services, counseling new students, and producing a television show which praised the King,
Bhumibol Adulyadej
Bhumibol Adulyadej ( th, ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช; ; ; (Sanskrit: ''bhūmi·bala atulya·teja'' - "might of the land, unparalleled brilliance"); 5 December 192713 October 2016), conferred with the title King Bhumibol the Great ...
. This conservative, royalist outlook can be traced to the organization of the NSCT and the manner in which people were elected officers. The NSCT consisted of three committees composed of the presidents of the student unions, who were responsible for formulating NSCT policy and selecting the leaders of the divisions in the secretariat committee.
[Ross Prizzia and Narong Sinsawasdi, "Evolution of the Thai student Movement (1940–1974)", ''Asia Quarterly'', vol 1, 1975.] This made it difficult for members of the more politically conscious groups to control or even influence the NSCT, as they were still viewed with suspicion by most students. As a result, activists were unable to win election to the campus student unions and thus to the NSCT. Many discussion groups found the NSCT to be conservative and unprogressive.
This changed in 1972 when
Thirayuth Boonmee
Thirayuth Boonmee ( th, ธีรยุทธ บุญมี, ; born 10 January 1950) is a Thai public intellectual and a former student activist.
Student leader
While a student at Chulalongkorn University in 1973, Thirayuth led the National St ...
, an engineering student from Chulalongkorn University, became secretary-general of the NSCT. He began the political activism of the NSCT. He was prudent in choosing issues to campaign against, allowing the NSCT time to mobilize and maintain political momentum.
[Prajak Kongkirati, "Thailand: The cultural Politics of Student Resistance" in Weiss, Meredith L. (ed), ''Student Activism in Asia: Between Protest and Powerlessness'', University Of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis: 2012.]
Despite the apparent unity of the student movement, there were noticeable splits among the students. While they were united in their aim to remove Prime Minister Field Marshal
Thanom Kittikachorn
Field Marshal Thanom Kittikachorn ( th, ถนอม กิตติขจร, ; 11 August 1911 – 16 June 2004) was the leader of Thailand from 1963 to 1973, during which he staged a self-coup, until public protests which exploded into viole ...
and his clique from office, once Thanom went into exile the student movement split into two main factions: the moderate university students and the radical vocational students. The vocational students were marked by their propensity for violence and their demands for the right to study for degrees. Likewise, the NSCT was divided between two personalities, Sombat Thamrongthanyawongse and
Seksan Prasertkul
Seksan Prasertkul ( th, เสกสรรค์ ประเสริฐกุล, born 1949) is a Thai author who was awarded the title National Artist of Thailand in 2009.
Seksan became a student leader at Thammasat University and was active i ...
. Some scholars link this conflict to the traditional Thai personal clique power competition typical of Thai bureaucracy. However, others cite the cooperation between Seksan and Sombat in protesting the construction of a second international airport for Bangkok as evidence that it was possible for them to cooperate.
[Zimmerman, Robert F. "Student 'Revolution' in Thailand: The End of the Thai Bureaucratic Polity?", ''Asian Survey'', XIV, 6 (June 1974).]
NSCT actions leading to October 1973
In November 1972, the NSCT began a campaign to boycott Japanese goods. This was a strategic move as it avoided a direct attack on the Thanom government, but served to show the public the students' intentions. As well as handing out leaflets in shopping centers, proclaiming an "Anti-Japanese Goods Week" and presenting a ten-point economic plan to Thanom, the NSCT also organized a protest march.
[Prudhisan Jumbala, "Interest and Pressure Groups" in S. Xuto, ''Governments and Politics of Thailand'', Oxford University Press, Singapore: 1987] It was difficult for the Thanom government to crack down on the NSCT despite the ban on other political parties as the NSCT played up nationalistic sentiment.
[David Morell and Chan-anan Samudavanija, ''Political Conflict in Thailand; Reform, Reaction, Revolution''. Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain, Mass: 1981]
With the success of the anti-Japanese goods campaign, the NSCT took a more obvious stance in December 1972 by responding to the government's National Executive Council Decree No. 299, which enabled the council to place the judiciary under direct bureaucratic control. This increased its powers vis-à-vis the judiciary. The NSCT organized an all-night sit-in at Thammasat University and a march from there to Chulalongkorn University. A protest rally was also held at Chiang Mai University. The NSCT was supported by the Lawyers Association of Thailand and by some members of the media. Three days later, the government backed down and retracted the decree.
[Ross Prizzia and Narong Sinsawasdi, ''Thailand; Student Activism and Political Change'', Duang Kamol, Bangkok: 1974 pp. 30–34.]
In June 1973, several university students from
Ramkhamhaeng University
Ramkhamhaeng University (RU) ( th, มหาวิทยาลัยรามคำแหง) is Thailand's largest public university. It was named in honour of King Ramkhamhaeng the Great of Sukhothai. The university provides an effective and e ...
were expelled for publishing a satire on the ruling government. The satire was related to the
Thung Yai hunting scandal that took place in April 1973, when a military helicopter crashed with the loss of senior military officers, family members, wealthy businessmen, and a film star. The death of the highly popular film star, as well as of the prominent businessmen, could not be covered up. The satire made public some of the details, arousing nationwide public outrage.
These activities were exposed at a time when the government extended the terms of office of Thanom and his deputy
Praphas Charusathien
Praphas Charusathien ( th, ประภาส จารุเสถียร, , ; 25 November 1912 – 18 August 1997) was a Thai military officer and politician. He was a field marshal (''chom phon'') of the Royal Thai Army and minister of inter ...
for another year.
[''Bangkok Post'', 24 May 1973.] The NSCT reacted by organizing rallies to call for the reinstatement of the students. Subsequently, the government decided to close the universities, which caused the rallies to grow in size, reaching 50,000.
Eventually, the government relented in the end, with the students reinstated and the rector of the university forced to resign.
Through these actions, the NSCT gained a reputation for being on the side of the people, helping to turn middle-class opinion against the military government. The NSCT also learned to organize effective rallies and demonstrations, showing their growing experience and resourcefulness as logisticians. By October 1973, they had earned themselves a political voice and, emboldened by their previous successes, took decisive action.
Events of 6–15 October 1973
On 6 October, Thirayuth Boonmee and ten other political activists were arrested for distributing leaflets in crowded places in Bangkok such as Bang Lamphu,
Siam Square, and
Pratunam
Pratunam, written as Pratu Nam ( th, ประตูน้ำ, ), is an intersection and neighborhood in Bangkok. It is located in Thanon Phaya Thai sub-district, Ratchathewi district. It is the intersection of Phetchaburi, Ratchadamri and Ratch ...
, urging support for an early drafting of the constitution.
[Kraiyudht Dhiratayakinant, ed., Thailand—Profile 1975, Bangkok: Voice of the Nation, 1975] The ruling government used a decree banning gatherings of more than five people to arrest them. The other arrestees were Thirayuth, Prapansak Kamolpetch, Boonsong Chalethorn, Bandhit Hengnilrat, Visa Kanthap, Thanya Chunkathatharn, Thawee Muenthikorn, Montri Juengsirinarak, Nopporn Suwanpanich, Preedi Boonsue, and Chaiwat Suravichai. They were taken to police headquarters and their homes were searched.
[Prizzia, Rosario, ''Thailand in transition: the role of oppositional forces'', University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1985.]
On 7 October, Kongkiat Kongka, accused of being a member of a group advocating early promulgation of the permanent constitution, was also arrested.
On 8 October, the twelve arrestees were denied bail and were also accused by Deputy Prime Minister Praphas Charusathien of being linked to a plot to overthrow the government.
On 9 October, more than 2,000 students from Thammasat University demonstrated at an anti-government rally. After the rally, the students held an all-night vigil, at which they were joined by students from Chulalongkorn University and several teacher training colleges. Khaisaeng Suksai, a former member of parliament, was also arrested, bringing the total number of those in custody to thirteen.
On 10 October, rallies in Bangkok swelled as more students from other student organizations joined the protests.
The government prepared to react by quietly setting up a crisis control center with Praphas Charusathien as its director.
On 11 October, Praphas agreed to meet with the students, who demanded the release of the 13 prisoners. He refused to meet their demands. By this time, the rally had moved to the grounds of Thammasat University to accommodate its growing size, with the number of protesters now reaching 50,000.
On 12 October, the government announced that it would release the thirteen prisoners on bail, but the students rejected the offer, stating that they would only accept the unconditional release of the prisoners.
Money was contributed by members of the public to support the protest.
On 13 October, the crowd, which had swelled to more than 400,000 (including many members of the public), marched to Democracy Monument to demand the release of the prisoners. The government quickly agreed to the demands and promised that the permanent constitution would be in place by October 1974. With their demands met, the students agreed to go back to their universities. About 200,000 students refused to disband, however, and their leader,
Seksan Prasertkul
Seksan Prasertkul ( th, เสกสรรค์ ประเสริฐกุล, born 1949) is a Thai author who was awarded the title National Artist of Thailand in 2009.
Seksan became a student leader at Thammasat University and was active i ...
, decided to lead them to the palace to seek advice from King Bhumibol.
On 14 October, the students reached the palace and were met by the king's representative, who said that Bhumibol requested that the students disband. The students agreed to do so, and the assistant director of the police ordered barricades placed to disperse the students in an orderly, single direction. The large size of the crowd meant that many were not able to leave, but the police refused their request for another exit, which resulted in resentment among the students. It is not clear how it happened, but reports soon were heard about violence against the students as the crowd became restive. Early in the morning, bombs exploded near the royal palace and the police began attacking the students.
By late morning, there were acts of vandalism and violence by both sides as the situation spun out of control. The government brought in tanks, helicopters, and infantrymen to support the police. Seventy-seven deaths and 857 injuries resulted
and many buildings near
Ratchadamnoen Avenue
Ratchadamnoen Avenue ( th, ถนนราชดำเนิน, , , also spelled Rajdamnern) is a historic road in the Phra Nakhon and Dusit Districts of Bangkok, Thailand. Ratchadamnoen Avenue may be the most politically charged thoroughfare ...
were set on fire. The number of demonstrators quickly grew to more than 500,000, as other students and their sympathizers rallied to their defense. The soldiers finally withdrew in the evening, and about 19:15 the king announced on television and radio that Thanom's military government had resigned.
Violence continued on 15 October around the police headquarters, with students demanding that Thanom be removed as head of the armed forces.
[''Bangkok Post'', 16 October 1973.] Only when it was announced that Thanom, Praphas, and Thanom's son, Colonel Narong Kittikachorn, who was married to Praphas' daughter, had fled the country did calm return to Bangkok. The end had come as quickly and unexpectedly as the violence had begun.
Aftermath
The uprising unleashed a range of political forces not seen in Thailand before, and the country gradually became more polarized. In the immediate aftermath of the uprising, there was a popular perception of promise and euphoria. However, things took a turn for the worse, as democracy took the blame for the consequences of the past dictatorships. There were a myriad of reasons for the widespread support for the students. For a majority of the people, the military government was a main reason to support the students because it failed to curb inflation and prevent rice shortages.
Benedict Anderson, a Southeast Asia scholar, has argued that despite the power and credibility they lent to the movement, the Thai middle class were far less concerned about the students' goals than they were dissatisfied with social and economic changes affecting their lives.
[Wright, Joseph J. Jr, ''The Balancing Act: A History of Modern Thailand'', Pacific Rim Press, Oakland, California: 1991]
In its idealism, the NSCT decided to use the donations they had gathered during October 1973 to educate villagers about democracy and its processes. The Democracy Propagation Program began in earnest over the few months after the new regime was installed and "democracy emissaries" were sent to all 580 districts in Thailand. This lasted till 1974, when the realities of the difference in culture, resistance, and inertia forced the program to a halt.
Student dissidence continued to emerge with grievances ranging from educational reform to Thailand's trade imbalance with Japan to the
CIA
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian intelligence agency, foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gat ...
's influence over the Thai military establishment. Strikes and sit-ins began in November 1973 and disrupted both businesses and private lives. The atmosphere of chaos continued as reports streamed from the northeast about the country's communist insurgency.
The lack of strong leadership in the interim government meant there was little break from the past. Even under the new constitution and after the general elections, the deputies approached their legislative duties with caution, voting conservatively and rejecting any legislation that might threaten the entrenched and wealthy upper class. Furthermore, the new civilian leadership feared offending the military and would not curb the privileges of powerful officers.
In the years after the uprising, riots and strikes took place with higher frequency and insurgency in the hills seemed commonplace while taxes rose. Electric power was intermittent and Bangkok at night was sometimes darkened. This was made worse as the international situation in Indochina deteriorated.
Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
,
Laos
Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist ...
, and
Cambodia
Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
all fell to communist forces in 1975, and the threat of communist groups in neighboring countries led to panic among the Thai people. The presence of communist regimes on Thai borders, the abolition of the 600 year-old Lao monarchy, and the arrival of a flood of refugees from Laos and Cambodia swung public opinion in Thailand to the right, resulting in conservatives gaining far more support in the 1976 elections than they had the previous year. This right-wing shift would culminate in the
6 October 1976 massacre
The 6 October 1976 massacre, or the 6 October event ( th, เหตุการณ์ 6 ตุลา ) as it is known in Thailand, was a violent crackdown by Thai police and lynching by right-wing paramilitaries and bystanders against leftist p ...
of student protesters at Thammasat University, which marked the end of the "democratic period".
Analysis
The uprising was undoubtedly driven by the actions of the university students, but the role of other forces should also be mentioned. These include armed forces rivalries, especially between the army and the navy, and a series of
wildcat strike
The wildcat is a species complex comprising two small wild cat species: the European wildcat (''Felis silvestris'') and the African wildcat (''F. lybica''). The European wildcat inhabits forests in Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus, while the ...
s by common labourers and civilian workers in August and September 1973, both of which helped to create an atmosphere conducive to a change in the ruling government.
While the uprising did not change the role of the monarch, it did emphasize his position as a final arbiter between opposing forces. On 14 October, King Bhumibol appointed the Thammasat chancellor and dean of the faculty of law, former
Supreme Court
A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in most legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
Judge
Sanya Dharmasakti
Sanya Dharmasakti ( th, สัญญา ธรรมศักดิ์, , ; 5 April 1907 – 6 January 2002) was a Thai jurist, university professor and politician. He served as the 12th Prime Minister of Thailand from 1973 to 1975.
Sanya Dh ...
, as prime minister by royal command. This established a precedent subsequently exercised only three times, of appointing
Prime Ministers of Thailand
The prime minister of Thailand ( th, นายกรัฐมนตรี, , ; literally 'chief minister of state') is the head of government of Thailand. The prime minister is also the chair of the Cabinet of Thailand. The post has existed si ...
. On 22 May 1974, Dr Sanya appointed a commission to draft a
new constitution, and on 27 May tendered his resignation. A
House of Representatives resolution called on him to serve a second consecutive term. In December 1973, the king appointed a 2,346-member
National General Assembly that elected a new 299-member National Legislative Assembly to replace the old one. The king has remained a key reference point for the Thai people ever since.
The role of the
Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) within the student movement is unusual as it had no visible influence on the events in October 1973. The CPT also failed to incorporate the students into their struggle for a number of reasons. First, the nature of the students prevented their recruitment. The majority of the university students were from middle-class or lower-middle-class backgrounds and had enrolled in universities in hopes of finding work in the government bureaucracy.
Further, Gawin Chutima, an ex-communist, argues that students were firmly locked into the
Sakdina ideology and were subordinate and obedient to older and socially superior persons.
[Gawin Chutima, ''The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Thailand (1973–1987)'', University of Kent, Canterbury, 1990.] In addition, the CPT pursued a strict Maoist line, which called for revolution to take place in rural areas first. The CPT did not consider students the vanguard of a Marxist revolution. They saw the students as weak-minded and undisciplined, a view that did not change even after the crackdown in October 1976.
[Yuangrat Wedel, ''The Thai Radicals and the Communist Party'', Maruzen Asia, Singapore: 1983.] Nevertheless, after the events of October 1973, the CPT began recruiting in the universities by publishing books and writing articles on campus. This was most evident in an article on the NSCT newspaper which called for armed struggle as the only way to change society for the better.
The toppling of the regime by the student movement ushered in a period (1973–1976) in Thai politics termed "democratic". However, in hindsight the period was not democratic in most senses of the word. The strong resurgence of the right wing and the military in late-1974 began a program of politically motivated assassinations of prominent peasant, farmer, and student leaders. Ironically, after the end of the Thanom regime, the political repression that forced radical students to toe the NSCT line also dissipated. This led to the breakup of the student movement into disparate parts.
In popular culture
Film
* ''
The Moonhunter
''The Moonhunter'' ( Thai: ''14 tula, songkram prachachon'', 14 ตุลา สงครามประชาชน) is a 2001 Thai film, depicting 1973 Thai popular uprising by Seksan Prasertkul, a student leader. It was directed by Bhandit Rit ...
'' (2001) written by
Seksan Prasertkul
Seksan Prasertkul ( th, เสกสรรค์ ประเสริฐกุล, born 1949) is a Thai author who was awarded the title National Artist of Thailand in 2009.
Seksan became a student leader at Thammasat University and was active i ...
himself, a student leader of the uprising.
See also
*
1970s peasant revolts in Thailand
Thailand witnessed several uprisings by farmers from several central Thai provinces in the mid-1970s. Thailand, transitioning to democratic government after nearly forty years of dictatorship, was beset by revolution involving several segments o ...
*
Counterculture of the 1960s
The counterculture of the 1960s was an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon that developed throughout much of the Western world in the 1960s and has been ongoing to the present day. The aggregate movement gained momentum as the civil rights mo ...
*
6 October 1976 massacre
The 6 October 1976 massacre, or the 6 October event ( th, เหตุการณ์ 6 ตุลา ) as it is known in Thailand, was a violent crackdown by Thai police and lynching by right-wing paramilitaries and bystanders against leftist p ...
References
Further reading
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:1973, Thai popular uprising
Conflicts in 1973
1973 in Thailand
1973 protests
Rebellions in Thailand
Massacres in Thailand
Massacres committed by Thailand
Protests in Thailand
Political violence in Thailand
October 1973 events in Asia