Little Crow III (
Dakota
Dakota may refer to:
* Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux
** Dakota language, their language
Dakota may also refer to:
Places United States
* Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Dakota, Illinois, a town
* Dakota, Minnesota, a ...
: ''Thaóyate Dúta''; 1810 – July 3, 1863) was a
Mdewakanton Dakota
The Mdewakanton or Mdewakantonwan (also spelled ''Mdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'' and currently pronounced ''Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'') are one of the sub-tribes of the Isanti (Santee) Dakota (Sioux). Their historic home is Mille Lacs Lake (Dakota: ''Mde Wá ...
chief who led a faction of the
Dakota
Dakota may refer to:
* Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux
** Dakota language, their language
Dakota may also refer to:
Places United States
* Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Dakota, Illinois, a town
* Dakota, Minnesota, a ...
in a
five-week war against the United States in 1862.
In 1846, after surviving a violent leadership contest with his half-brothers, Taoyateduta became chief of his band and assumed the name Little Crow.
He played a pivotal role in signing the 1851
Treaty of Mendota
The Treaty of Mendota was signed in Mendota, Minnesota on August 5, 1851 between the United States federal government and the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute Dakota people of Minnesota.
The agreement was signed near Pilot Knob on the south bank of the ...
which ceded most of their lands in present-day
Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
and
Iowa
Iowa () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west. It is bordered by six states: Wisconsin to the northeast, Illinois to the ...
to the United States. In 1858, Little Crow led a delegation of Dakota leaders to Washington, D.C., where they were pressured by the U.S. government to give up their remaining holdings north of the upper
Minnesota River
The Minnesota River ( dak, MnÃsota Wakpá) is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately 332 miles (534 km) long, in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It drains a watershed of in Minnesota and about in South Dakota and Iowa.
It ris ...
.
Faced with anger and mistrust at home, Little Crow lost an election for tribal spokesman in 1862, after which he tried to change his traditionalist ways.
That summer, severe economic hardship, starvation, and tensions with government
Indian agents
From the 1870s until the 1960s, an Indian agent was the Government of Canada, Canadian government's representative on First Nations in Canada, First Nations Indian reserve, reserves. The role of the Indian agent in Canadian history has never been ...
,
fur traders
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the mos ...
, and a fast-growing population of European and American settlers led to unrest among the Dakota, particularly the younger generation of hunters. On August 17, 1862, four Dakota hunters killed five Anglo-American settlers including two women. Fearing punishment, they pleaded for help from a faction of Dakota chiefs and headmen who wanted an all-out war to drive settlers out of the region. Their chosen leader was Little Crow, who initially tried to dissuade them. He pointed out the futility of fighting against the "white men," but finally agreed to lead them. Little Crow pledged to die with them and triggered the massacre of hundreds of settlers, as well as the capture of nearly 300 "mixed-blood" and white hostages, almost all women.
Little Crow met significant opposition from many Dakota, particularly farmers and Christian converts, who preferred to maintain peace with the United States, objected to the killing of civilians, and wanted to free the captives. In September, Little Crow exchanged a series of messages with Colonel
Henry Hastings Sibley
Henry Hastings Sibley (February 20, 1811 – February 18, 1891) was a fur trader with the American Fur Company, the first U.S. Congressional representative for Minnesota Territory, the first governor of the state of Minnesota, and a U.S. mil ...
offering to negotiate, but Sibley refused to begin talks until the hostages were released. Although the demands of the
American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states th ...
slowed the U.S. military response, the volunteer army under Sibley defeated Little Crow's forces decisively at the
Battle of Wood Lake
The Battle of Wood Lake occurred on September 23, 1862, and was the final battle in the Dakota War of 1862. The two-hour battle, which actually took place at nearby Lone Tree Lake, was a decisive victory for the U.S. forces led by Colonel Henry Ha ...
on September 23, 1862.
Following his defeat, Little Crow prevented his followers from attacking other Dakota or killing the hostages, and fled with a group of them to the northern plains. He hoped to gain support from other Native American tribes, as well as the British in Canada.
Rebuffed by other tribes and left with a dwindling number of supporters, Little Crow returned to
Yellow Medicine
Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575585 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RG ...
with his son
Wowinape in late June 1863.
Little Crow was shot and killed on July 3, 1863, by two settlers, a father and son. They scalped him and took his body to
Hutchinson, Minnesota
Hutchinson is the largest city in McLeod County, Minnesota, McLeod County, Minnesota, United States. It lies along the South Fork of the Crow River (Minnesota), Crow River. The population was 14,599 at the 2010 United States Census, 2020 census.
...
, where it was displayed and mutilated. The state paid the father $500 for killing Little Crow, and paid the son $75 for his scalp.
Little Crow's remains were later exhumed by Army troops. In 1879, the
Minnesota Historical Society
The Minnesota Historical Society (MNHS) is a nonprofit educational and cultural institution dedicated to preserving the history of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It was founded by the territorial legislature in 1849, almost a decade before statehoo ...
put his remains on display at the
Minnesota State Capitol
The Minnesota State Capitol is the seat of government for the U.S. state of Minnesota, in its capital city of Saint Paul. It houses the Minnesota Senate, Minnesota House of Representatives, the office of the Attorney General and the office o ...
, but removed them in 1915 at the request of Little Crow's grandson, Jesse Wakeman.
In 1971, the society finally returned Little Crow's remains to the Wakeman family for proper burial at the
.
Little Crow's burial site was listed on the
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the United States federal government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects deemed worthy of preservation for their historical significance or "great artistic v ...
in 2017.
Early life
There were at least three chiefs called Little Crow, including Taoyateduta's grandfather Cetanwakanmani (''Čhetáŋ Wakhúwa Máni,'' literally "Hawk that hunts walking") who was called "Petit Corbeau" by the French; his father Wakinyantanka ("Big Thunder"); and most famously, Taoyateduta himself. The exact origins of the European name "Little Crow" are unclear. Some have suggested that it was a mistranslation of "Sparrowhawk" or "Charging Hawk,"
while others have explained that the men were known to carry the skin or wings of a crow on their backs or dangling from their belts as a totem.
His Dakota name, ''Thaóyate Dúta,'' is most often translated as "His Red Nation";
other variations include "His Red People"
and "His Scarlet Nation." There is considerable speculation about his year of birth. While his gravestone lists his birth year as 1818, historian Gary Clayton Anderson concludes that it seems most likely that he was born in 1810, based on mission school records and the fact that Taoyateduta served as a warrior in the
Dakota Sioux
The Dakota (pronounced , Dakota language: ''Dakȟóta/Dakhóta'') are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people, and are typically divided into ...
contingent enlisted by the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
in the
Black Hawk War
The Black Hawk War was a conflict between the United States and Native Americans led by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war erupted after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, Meskwakis (Fox), and Kickapoos, known as the "British Band", crosse ...
of 1832.
He was one of at least ten boys born to Big Thunder (''Wakiŋyaŋtaŋka'') Little Crow II and his three wives. Taoyateduta is believed to have been the son of Big Thunder's first wife, Miniokadawin, who was from
Wabasha's band.
He grew up with a physiological oddity, a double row of teeth.
Early years in Kaposia
Taoyateduta was born at the Mdewakanton Dakota village of
Kaposia
Kaposia or Kapozha was a seasonal and migratory Dakota settlement, also known as "Little Crow's village," once located on the east side of the Mississippi River in present-day Saint Paul, Minnesota. The Kaposia band of Mdewakanton Dakota was estab ...
, also known as Little Crow's village. Over the years, Kaposia most likely had many locations on the east side of the
Mississippi river
The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it f ...
, but is thought to have been in the area between Wakan Tipi and the
Pigs Eye wetlands, just below present-day
Indian Mounds Park, around the time of Taoyateduta's birth.
Following the 1837 land cession treaty signed between the Mdewakanton Dakota and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
, the Kaposia band, the only Mdewakanton band located in the ceded area, moved across the river from the
wetlands
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The ...
to what is now
South St. Paul
South St. Paul is a city in Dakota County, Minnesota, United States, located immediately south and southeast of St. Paul. It is also east of West St. Paul. The population was 20,759 at the 2020 census. Historically, the town was notable as a m ...
.
As a young man, Taoyateduta left Kaposia for the west. At the time, he was unpopular with his father's band due to his arrogant behavior, especially toward his half-brothers. He was said to have been forced out because some men threatened to kill him for having had affairs with their wives. For over a decade, Taoyateduta visited Kaposia very rarely and only for a short time.
Lac qui Parle years
![Fort Renville Site](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Fort_Renville_Site.JPG)
Once Taoyateduta was married, he was said to have abandoned his "bad habits."
He lived for a time on the
Des Moines
Des Moines () is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is also the county seat of Polk County. A small part of the city extends into Warren County. It was incorporated on September 22, 1851, as Fort Des Moines, ...
and
Cannon Rivers with the
Wahpekute
The Dakota (pronounced , Dakota language: ''Dakȟóta/Dakhóta'') are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people, and are typically divided into ...
, where he took two wives – daughters of a Wahpekute chief, most likely Tasagye (The Cane) – and had at least three children. By 1838, he had left the Wahpekute and parted ways with his first two wives. He moved further west and settled in
Lac qui Parle
Lac qui Parle is a lake located in western Minnesota, United States, which was widened by the damming of the Minnesota River. The dam was built by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1939. It was reconstructed in 1996. Lac qui Parle is a F ...
where he married the four daughters of Inyangmani, a
Wahpeton chief, with whom he would have at least twenty more children.
Taoyateduta would later be remembered by physician Dr.
Asa W. Daniels
ASA as an abbreviation or initialism may refer to:
Biology and medicine
* Accessible surface area of a biomolecule, accessible to a solvent
* Acetylsalicylic acid, aspirin
* Advanced surface ablation, refractive eye surgery
* Anterior spinal ar ...
as a devoted father who was especially proud of his eldest son and "had a natural love for children."
![Lac qui Parle Mission](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Lac_qui_Parle_Mission.JPG)
Lac qui Parle was also home to a large
Mdewakanton
The Mdewakanton or Mdewakantonwan (also spelled ''Mdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'' and currently pronounced ''Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'') are one of the sub-tribes of the Isanti (Santee) Dakota ( Sioux). Their historic home is Mille Lacs Lake (Dakota: ''Mde Wà ...
community, including many of Taoyateduta's relatives such as Mary Tokanne Renville (wife of
Joseph Renville
Joseph Renville (1779–1846) was an interpreter, translator, expedition guide, Canadian officer in the War of 1812, founder of the Columbia Fur Company, and an important figure in dealings between white men and Dakota people, Dakota (Sioux) Indian ...
, whose mother was also from the Kaposia band) and her brother Left Hand. There, Taoyateduta learned to read and write in the
Dakota language
Dakota (''Dakhótiyapi, Dakȟótiyapi''), also referred to as Dakhota, is a Siouan language spoken by the Dakota people of the Sioux tribes. Dakota is closely related to and mutually intelligible with the Lakota language. It is critically endan ...
, as well as some English and arithmetic. He studied with
Gideon Hollister Pond
Gideon Hollister Pond (June 30, 1810 – January 20, 1878) was an American Presbyterian missionary, clergyman, and territorial legislator.
Early life and education
A son of Elnathan Judson Pond and Sarah Hollister Pond, Gideon and his broth ...
in 1837, and attended classes at the
Presbyterian
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland by John Knox, who was a priest at St. Giles Cathedral (Church of Scotland). Presbyterian churches derive their nam ...
mission school through 1844–45. In addition, he attended church at the
Lac qui Parle Mission
Lac qui Parle Mission is a pre-territorial mission in Chippewa County, Minnesota, United States, which was founded in June 1835 by Dr. Thomas Smith Williamson and Alexander Huggins after fur trader Joseph Renville invited missionaries to the area ...
and showed an interest in learning about
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
, although he did not give up his native religion or customs. Two of Taoyateduta's wives converted to Christianity, though they later left the church, and missionary
Stephen Return Riggs
Stephen Return Riggs (March 23, 1812 – August 24, 1883) was a Christian missionary and linguist who lived and worked among the Dakota people.
Riggs was born in Steubenville, Ohio. His career among the Dakota began in 1837 at Lac qui Parle ...
wrote at the time that he thought Taoyateduta himself could be "
saved."
During this time, Taoyateduta also engaged in the liquor trade, transporting alcohol to the west to trade for fur or horses. It was a lucrative source of income for many
fur traders
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the mos ...
including
Joseph Renville
Joseph Renville (1779–1846) was an interpreter, translator, expedition guide, Canadian officer in the War of 1812, founder of the Columbia Fur Company, and an important figure in dealings between white men and Dakota people, Dakota (Sioux) Indian ...
and
Joseph R. Brown
Joseph Renshaw Brown (1805–1870) was an American politician, pioneer, fur trader, newspaper editor, businessman, inventor, speculator, and Indian agent who was prominent in Minnesota and Wisconsin territorial and state politics for over 50 ye ...
. Taoyateduta was a shrewd entrepreneur who was good with numbers; he was fond of gambling and apparently had
a system for winning poker, "a skill for which he had few equals, white or Indian."
Dr. Daniels described Taoyateduta's memory as "remarkably retentive" and argued that in later years, it enabled him "to state accurately promises made years before to these Indians and by government officials and to give the exact amount of money owing them, to the dollar and cent."
In 1841, Taoyateduta went on a hunting trip with
Henry Hastings Sibley
Henry Hastings Sibley (February 20, 1811 – February 18, 1891) was a fur trader with the American Fur Company, the first U.S. Congressional representative for Minnesota Territory, the first governor of the state of Minnesota, and a U.S. mil ...
, the regional manager of the
American Fur Company
The American Fur Company (AFC) was founded in 1808, by John Jacob Astor, a German immigrant to the United States. During the 18th century, furs had become a major commodity in Europe, and North America became a major supplier. Several British co ...
, "mixed-blood" fur trader
Alexander Faribault
Alexander "Alex" Faribault (June 22, 1806 – November 28, 1882) was an American trading post operator and territorial legislator who helped to found Faribault, Minnesota and was its first postmaster.
Born in Prairie du Chien, Michigan Terr ...
, and many others. Sibley and his friends were mounted on horses and pursued a large herd of more than a thousand elk at a steady pace for five days; Taoyateduta kept up on foot the entire way, conversing with them as they covered 25 miles each day, and impressed everyone with his stamina. Historian Anderson writes, "The incident also showed that Taoyateduta was a man who, when he chose to participate in an event, was willing to exert whatever effort was required to impress others."
During his Lac qui Parle years, Taoyateduta's reputation suffered from his association with friends and hunting partners such as Jack Frazer, a "mixed-blood" hunter who had grown up with the
Dakota
Dakota may refer to:
* Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux
** Dakota language, their language
Dakota may also refer to:
Places United States
* Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Dakota, Illinois, a town
* Dakota, Minnesota, a ...
and also became a close friend of Henry Sibley.
Among Dakota elders, Frazer was known as a "rather disreputable fellow...sacrilegious, constantly poking fun at Dakota customs, and even mimicking Dakota spirits,"
and was notorious for his cavalier attitude toward authority.
Other complaints against Taoyateduta were that he was "lazy,"
preferring to deal in furs rather than hunt himself because it was more profitable,
and that he did not join war parties against the
Ojibwe
The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains.
According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
, except on one occasion.
However, Taoyateduta had also gained many admirers in Lac qui Parle "because of his smooth speech, agreeable manners, and rare good judgment."
Fight for chieftainship
Death of Big Thunder
Back in Kaposia, Taoyateduta's father, Big Thunder (Wakinyantanka), was mortally wounded in October 1845 after accidentally discharging a gun. The old chief, together with one of his wives and two or three grandsons, had set out with an ox-drawn cart to gather some newly ripened corn in his field on the hill behind
Kaposia
Kaposia or Kapozha was a seasonal and migratory Dakota settlement, also known as "Little Crow's village," once located on the east side of the Mississippi River in present-day Saint Paul, Minnesota. The Kaposia band of Mdewakanton Dakota was estab ...
village. As the cart went up the hill, the loaded gun started to slide toward the back of the cart, which was open. Big Thunder caught the gun by the muzzle and was drawing it toward him when it went off. He was taken back to Kaposia to see the medicine man. Surgeon George F. Turner also came from
Fort Snelling
Fort Snelling is a former military fortification and National Historic Landmark in the U.S. state of Minnesota on the bluffs overlooking the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers. The military site was initially named Fort Saint Anth ...
to examine him, but there was nothing either the medicine man or the surgeon could do to save him. Big Thunder died three days later.
Before he died, Wakinyantanka named one of Taoyateduta's younger half-brothers as his successor, saying that he was not pleased with Taoyateduta, even though he was next in line to be named chief.
He also gave his medals – including a presidential medal that had been given to his own father, Cetanwakanmani, after he visited Washington, D.C. in 1824 – to the younger brother as a symbol that he was now the chosen leader of the band.
(Twenty-seven years later,
Henry Hastings Sibley
Henry Hastings Sibley (February 20, 1811 – February 18, 1891) was a fur trader with the American Fur Company, the first U.S. Congressional representative for Minnesota Territory, the first governor of the state of Minnesota, and a U.S. mil ...
claimed that he had witnessed Big Thunder speaking to Taoyateduta at his deathbed, not his younger brother. However, historian Return Ira Holcombe, who compiled eyewitness testimony from at least nine other sources including members of Little Crow's family, wrote that Sibley's claim conflicted with all other accounts of Big Thunder's death, which stated that Taoyateduta was more than 200 miles away at the time of his father's death; that he did not learn of his father's death until at least two weeks later; and that he did not return to Kaposia from Lac qui Parle until months afterwards.
Gary Clayton Anderson suggests that it could have been a case of mistaken identity and that back in 1845, Sibley was perhaps unable to tell Taoyateduta apart from his brother.
)
Return to Kaposia
![Little Crow's Village on the Mississippi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Little_Crow%27s_Village_on_the_Mississippi.jpg)
After learning of his father's death, Taoyateduta spent the fall and winter carefully planning his return to Kaposia. Taoyateduta believed he was entitled to claim the role of chief, but had learned that two of his half-brothers were willing to fight him to the death. They had declared that Taoyateduta's absence from Kaposia for over a decade disqualified him from taking over.
However, Taoyateduta learned that there were others in Kaposia who would support him as chief of the band; they understood that he was no longer "foolish" and had changed his ways.
Taoyateduta waited until the spring of 1846 for his return. Once the ice had melted, he descended the
Minnesota River
The Minnesota River ( dak, MnÃsota Wakpá) is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately 332 miles (534 km) long, in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It drains a watershed of in Minnesota and about in South Dakota and Iowa.
It ris ...
from Lac qui Parle. He had organized a large group of friends and relatives to accompany him, including Mdewakantons such as his cousin Lorenzo Lawrence, a "full-blood" Dakota whose family were Christian converts; several Wahpetons; and three of his wives.
As they approached the villages of Shakopee and Black Dog, a growing number of supporters were encouraged to join them. By the time they reached Kaposia, Taoyateduta was accompanied by a sizable flotilla of canoes. Word had reached Kaposia ahead of their arrival, and a large crowd met them on the riverbank.
Armed with guns, Taoyateduta's two half-brothers warned him not to land, threatening, "If you do, you shall die." As Taoyateduta stepped out of the canoe, his brother shouted, "You are not wanted here. Go and live at Lac qui Parle. You are a Wahpeton now and no longer a Mdewakanton. Go back, or I will shoot." Taoyateduta advanced, folded his arms over his chest, and said loudly: "Shoot then where all can see. I am not afraid and they all know it." His brother fired and hit Taoyateduta, who fell backward into the arms of Tukanmani (Walker Among Sacred Stones), causing Taoyateduta's supporters to rush forward and chase the brothers away.
Fired at close range, the ball had passed through both of Taoyateduta's forearms, breaking his bones; his chest and face were also wounded, but he was still alive. He was taken to see the surgeon at Fort Snelling, who recommended amputation, which Taoyateduta refused. He returned to Kaposia where he was attended by shamans. According to Anderson, "His wounds slowly healed, but for the remainder of his life, Taoyateduta carried the ghastly scars of this attempted assassination. His wrists remained deformed, his hands hung awkwardly from them, and he always covered them. He never regained the total use of his fingers."
Soon afterwards, the village elders decided that Taoyateduta had acted bravely. Many observers agreed that his survival was an indication that he was destined to be chief. The elders sanctioned the execution of Taoyateduta's two half-brothers by his supporters. Taoyateduta thus assumed complete control as chief of the Kaposia band and adopted the name "Little Crow."
Early years as chief
![Kaposia Village (1851)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Kaposia_Village_%281851%29.jpg)
As a new chief, it was clear that Taoyateduta took his responsibilities very seriously. He enlisted the help of
Indian agent
In United States history, an Indian agent was an individual authorized to interact with American Indian tribes on behalf of the government.
Background
The federal regulation of Indian affairs in the United States first included development of t ...
Amos Bruce, who organized
temperance
Temperance may refer to:
Moderation
*Temperance movement, movement to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed
*Temperance (virtue), habitual moderation in the indulgence of a natural appetite or passion
Culture
*Temperance (group), Canadian danc ...
pledges at
Kaposia
Kaposia or Kapozha was a seasonal and migratory Dakota settlement, also known as "Little Crow's village," once located on the east side of the Mississippi River in present-day Saint Paul, Minnesota. The Kaposia band of Mdewakanton Dakota was estab ...
. Little Crow himself took the pledge for seven months and became a strong advocate of
sobriety
Sobriety is the condition of not having any measurable levels or effects from alcohol or drugs. Sobriety is also considered to be the natural state of a human being at birth. A person in a state of sobriety is considered sober. Organizations o ...
.
Physician Asa W. Daniels would attest many years later that "Little Crow was a man of good habits;
never knew of his using intoxicating liquors."
Historian Anderson writes, "Although drinking did not cease entirely, the pledges brought an immediate decrease in the consumption of alcohol, much to the wonderment of many white observers. The success of the program attracted the attention of government authorities, who took notice of Little Crow's increased influence."
In the fall of 1846, when reminded of his own years of rebellion and mischief, Little Crow replied: "I was only a brave, then; I am a chief now."
One of his next moves was to invite
Reverend Thomas Smith Williamson, M.D. to move to Kaposia from
Lac qui Parle
Lac qui Parle is a lake located in western Minnesota, United States, which was widened by the damming of the Minnesota River. The dam was built by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1939. It was reconstructed in 1996. Lac qui Parle is a F ...
. Williamson arrived in Kaposia and established both a church and a
Dakota
Dakota may refer to:
* Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux
** Dakota language, their language
Dakota may also refer to:
Places United States
* Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Dakota, Illinois, a town
* Dakota, Minnesota, a ...
school, hopeful that having the backing of an important chief would encourage more
Mdewakantons to convert to
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
. Once he arrived, he discovered that Little Crow had persuaded the village elders to accept missionaries because of Williamson's medical background, which would have many benefits, including securing
vaccinations for smallpox. To his disappointment, Little Crow himself showed no interest in attending church, and only a handful of attendees went regularly.
Education in Kaposia
Little Crow's main motive for inviting Williamson was probably education. He valued the education he had received at the
mission school
The Mission School (sometimes called "New Folk" or "Urban Rustic") is an art movement of the 1990s and 2000s, centered in the Mission District, San Francisco, California.
History and characteristics
This movement is generally considered to have ...
in Lac qui Parle, and wanted a similar experience for his own children in Kaposia. His Mdewakanton relatives from Lac qui Parle who had moved with him to Kaposia, such as Lorenzo Lawrence, had also lobbied for schools, even though the villagers themselves had opposed education in the past. During the winters of 1846–47 and 1847–48, Little Crow and two of his younger half-brothers regularly attended Williamson's new mission school in Kaposia. In the first year, 54 students enrolled, with an average of 12 students attending classes on any given day. By the second year, average daily attendance was up to 30 students a day. One of the late
Joseph Renville's daughters, Marguerite Renville, taught most of the classes.
However, trouble began after Indian agent Bruce recommended in 1847 that the government offer its own educational programs in the Mdewakanton villages.
The 1837 land cession treaty signed with the United States had specified that US$5,000 a year would be set aside in an educational fund for the
Mdewakanton Dakota
The Mdewakanton or Mdewakantonwan (also spelled ''Mdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'' and currently pronounced ''Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'') are one of the sub-tribes of the Isanti (Santee) Dakota (Sioux). Their historic home is Mille Lacs Lake (Dakota: ''Mde Wá ...
controlled by the government, instead of being paid out in annuities. Very little of this money had been spent, and soon there were disputes over how exactly the educational fund should be allocated. As word spread that schools would be built, the traders encouraged the Dakota to oppose them, hoping that if enough people complained, the government would have no choice but to distribute the funds to individuals rather than investing in schools, which would in turn benefit the traders.
Suspicion also grew as to whether the missionaries had been benefitting from the educational fund all along. Williamson denied that he was interested in any government support, although he had received small grants in the past. Little Crow once again threw his support behind the mission school in January 1849, but by the spring of 1849, even the chief and his supporters seemed to have lost interest, and stopped attending classes.
Williamson, with the support of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was among the first American Christian missionary organizations. It was created in 1810 by recent graduates of Williams College. In the 19th century it was the largest and most imp ...
, then decided to experiment with boarding schools as a means of encouraging more Dakota children to stay in school. Little Crow supported his efforts and sent two of his children to live with Williamson, including his eldest son,
Wowinape, and his daughter Emma. Wowinape was two or three years old when he first entered the boarding school in 1849, but Little Crow temporarily withdrew him, explaining that some villagers had threatened to poison his son if he were permitted to stay with the missionaries. Wowinape returned to the boarding school along with Emma from 1850 to 1851, but the children were taken out of school again after one year. Historian Anderson writes, "Little Crow was never able to win over the opponents to education in his village, and as the debate over schools brought threats to his children's safety, the Kaposia chief began to vacillate in his support of education."
Trading and hunting
With growing opposition to schools, Little Crow once again focused his energies on trading and gambling for furs in the west. According to fur trader
Martin McLeod
Martin McLeod (April 13, 1813 – November 20, 1860) was an American fur trader, pioneer, and territorial legislator in Minnesota.
McLeod was born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada and had Scottish ancestry. He worked as a clerk in Montreal and t ...
, in 1848, Little Crow and nearly everyone in Kaposia were allegedly involved in trading whisky for furs, a venture which put them in direct competition with
Henry Hastings Sibley
Henry Hastings Sibley (February 20, 1811 – February 18, 1891) was a fur trader with the American Fur Company, the first U.S. Congressional representative for Minnesota Territory, the first governor of the state of Minnesota, and a U.S. mil ...
and his traders. Sibley, McLeod and others attempted to patrol the rivers, and eventually got the army involved in stopping any Dakota canoes that might be carrying "contraband," as the activity had been made illegal by statute. McLeod also identified Little Crow and one of his brothers as having had considerable success in gambling for furs within their kinship networks in Lac qui Parle. Furthermore, Little Crow was believed to have been involved in at least one incident of stealing furs from a lodge of
Ojibwe
The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains.
According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
who had been found hunting on Dakota lands. By trading and gambling for furs, and sometimes hunting, Little Crow and the men of
Kaposia
Kaposia or Kapozha was a seasonal and migratory Dakota settlement, also known as "Little Crow's village," once located on the east side of the Mississippi River in present-day Saint Paul, Minnesota. The Kaposia band of Mdewakanton Dakota was estab ...
found additional ways to contribute to the village economy rather than relying solely on the farming program and the annuities they were entitled to according to the 1837 land cession treaty signed between the Dakota and the United States.
Treaty negotiations
![Little Crow by Frank Blackwell Mayer](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Little_Crow_by_Frank_Blackwell_Mayer.jpg)
In 1851, Little Crow played a pivotal role in negotiating the
Treaty of Mendota
The Treaty of Mendota was signed in Mendota, Minnesota on August 5, 1851 between the United States federal government and the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute Dakota people of Minnesota.
The agreement was signed near Pilot Knob on the south bank of the ...
, which stated that the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute bands would receive US$1,410,000, most of which would be held in trust and paid in annuities, for ceding their lands to the U.S. government.
The terms of the treaty required them to relocate to a reservation on either side of the
Minnesota River
The Minnesota River ( dak, MnÃsota Wakpá) is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately 332 miles (534 km) long, in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It drains a watershed of in Minnesota and about in South Dakota and Iowa.
It ris ...
. In 1858, he led the Mdewakanton-Wahpekute delegation to Washington, D.C., where Little Crow and other leaders were pressured into giving up the northern half of their remaining holdings along the Minnesota River, as part of a further land cession treaty.
Little Crow was present at
Traverse des Sioux
Traverse des Sioux is a historic site in the U.S. state of Minnesota. Once part of a pre-industrial trade route, it is preserved to commemorate that route, a busy river crossing on it, and a nineteenth-century settlement, trading post, and missio ...
and signed the Mendota treaty, by which the bands agreed to move to land set aside along the
Minnesota River
The Minnesota River ( dak, MnÃsota Wakpá) is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately 332 miles (534 km) long, in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It drains a watershed of in Minnesota and about in South Dakota and Iowa.
It ris ...
to the west of their traditional territory.
The treaty as
ratified
Ratification is a principal's approval of an act of its agent that lacked the authority to bind the principal legally. Ratification defines the international act in which a state indicates its consent to be bound to a treaty if the parties inte ...
by the
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, with the House of Representatives being the lower chamber. Together they compose the national bicameral legislature of the United States.
The composition and pow ...
removed Article 3 of the treaty, which had set aside this land.
The tribe was compelled to negotiate a new treaty, under threat of forcible removal to the
Dakota Territory
The Territory of Dakota was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from March 2, 1861, until November 2, 1889, when the final extent of the reduced territory was split and admitted to the Union as the states of No ...
, and was granted land only on one side of the river.
In the spring of 1862, Little Crow lost the election for speaker of the tribe to Traveling Hail, due to mistrust over his role in negotiating the 1858 treaty and his refusal to endorse the farming program. Devastated by his political defeat, Little Crow started to become more open to changing his religion and way of life to be more like a "white man."
However, developments in the summer of 1862 changed everything. Due to the poor harvest the previous year, limited hunting, and the refusal of traders and
Indian agents
From the 1870s until the 1960s, an Indian agent was the Government of Canada, Canadian government's representative on First Nations in Canada, First Nations Indian reserve, reserves. The role of the Indian agent in Canadian history has never been ...
to provide food on credit, many Dakota were starving. Even after the summer harvest started to alleviate the crisis, the failure of the federal government to deliver
annuities
In investment, an annuity is a series of payments made at equal intervals.Kellison, Stephen G. (1970). ''The Theory of Interest''. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. p. 45 Examples of annuities are regular deposits to a savings account, mo ...
on time led to widespread anger and distrust, particularly among non-farmers.
Little Crow tried to adapt to customs of the United States. He visited President
James Buchanan
James Buchanan Jr. ( ; April 23, 1791June 1, 1868) was an American lawyer, diplomat and politician who served as the 15th president of the United States from 1857 to 1861. He previously served as secretary of state from 1845 to 1849 and repr ...
in
Washington, D.C.
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...
, replaced his native clothing with trousers and jackets with brass buttons, joined the
Episcopal Church, and took up farming. However, by 1862, his band was starving. Crops had failed on their small reservation, game was overhunted, and Congress failed to pay the annuities mandated by treaty. Payments were delayed because of the outbreak of the American Civil War. There were rumors that the 'Great Council' of Congress had expended all their gold fighting the
Civil War
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
and did not have the money. As the tribe grew hungry and as food languished in traders' warehouses at the Sioux agencies, Little Crow's ability to restrain his people deteriorated.
Dakota War of 1862
On August 4, 1862, a crowd of Dakota broke into the food warehouse at the
Upper Sioux Agency
Upper may refer to:
* Shoe upper or ''vamp'', the part of a shoe on the top of the foot
* Stimulant, drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both
* ''Upper'', the original film title for the 2013 found fo ...
.
Lieutenant Timothy J. Sheehan, realizing that peace would not be restored until there was a distribution of food, called for reinforcements from Captain John S. Marsh back at
Fort Ridgely
Fort Ridgely was a frontier United States Army outpost from 1851 to 1867, built 1853–1854 in Minnesota Territory. The Sioux called it Esa Tonka. It was located overlooking the Minnesota river southwest of Fairfax, Minnesota. Half of the ...
.
Upon hearing news of the conflict, Little Crow hurriedly rode to
Yellow Medicine
Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575585 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RG ...
and took part in discussions the next day with Indian agent
Thomas J. Galbraith
Thomas J. Galbraith (1825–1909) was an American politician. In 1857, he signed the Republican version of the Minnesota State Constitution. Galbraith served in the Minnesota Territorial House of Representatives in 1856. He then served the 18t ...
, missionary
Stephen Return Riggs
Stephen Return Riggs (March 23, 1812 – August 24, 1883) was a Christian missionary and linguist who lived and worked among the Dakota people.
Riggs was born in Steubenville, Ohio. His career among the Dakota began in 1837 at Lac qui Parle ...
, missionary John P. Williamson, and trader
Andrew Myrick
Andrew J. Myrick (May 28, 1832 – August 18, 1862) was a trader, who with his Dakota wife (''Winyangewin''/Nancy Myrick), operated stores in southwest Minnesota at two Native American agencies serving the Dakota (referred to as Sioux at the tim ...
. At the council, Little Crow pointed out that Dakota were owed money to buy the food, suggested that Galbraith "make some arrangement" whereby the traders would extend credit, and warned that "When men are hungry, they help themselves."
The representative of the traders,
Andrew Myrick
Andrew J. Myrick (May 28, 1832 – August 18, 1862) was a trader, who with his Dakota wife (''Winyangewin''/Nancy Myrick), operated stores in southwest Minnesota at two Native American agencies serving the Dakota (referred to as Sioux at the tim ...
, replied, "So far as I am concerned, if they are hungry let them eat grass," causing outrage among the
Sisseton
Sisseton is a city in Roberts County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 2,479 at the 2020 census. It is the county seat of Roberts County. Sisseton is the home to a number of tourist attractions, including the Nicollet Tower, and ...
and
Wahpeton who were present.
The tense situation was defused following the arrival of Captain John S. Marsh, who instructed agent Galbraith to open his warehouse and told his men to arrest any traders who incited further anger and unrest among the
Dakota
Dakota may refer to:
* Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux
** Dakota language, their language
Dakota may also refer to:
Places United States
* Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Dakota, Illinois, a town
* Dakota, Minnesota, a ...
.
On August 17, 1862, four young Dakota hunters quarreled with a settler and killed five civilians, including two women, near a small settlement called
Acton Acton may refer to:
Places Antarctica
* Mount Acton
Australia
* Acton, Australian Capital Territory, a suburb of Canberra
* Acton, Tasmania, a suburb of Burnie
* Acton Park, Tasmania, a suburb of Hobart, Tasmania, formerly known as Acton
Canada ...
.
Fearing punishment, the hunters fled back to Rice Creek Village, where they told their story to Cut Nose,
Little Six (Shakopee III) and Red Middle Voice, who were supportive of going to war to drive the settlers out of the region.
The group then visited Little Crow in the middle of the night; they viewed Little Crow as the only traditionalist chief with enough political influence and prestige to lead an all-out war.
Little Crow initially tried to dissuade them, advising them to consult their elected spokesman and pointing out the futility of going up against the "white men." However, he eventually agreed to lead the warriors, saying "Taoyateduta is not a coward: I will die with you."
A council was called, war was declared, and Little Crow ordered an attack the following morning at the
Lower Sioux Agency
The Lower Sioux Agency, or Redwood Agency, was the federal administrative center for the Lower Sioux Indian Reservation in what became Redwood County, Minnesota, United States. It was the site of the Battle of Lower Sioux Agency on August 18, 186 ...
,
setting into motion the
Dakota War of 1862
The Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising, the Dakota Uprising, the Sioux Outbreak of 1862, the Dakota Conflict, the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862, or Little Crow's War, was an armed conflict between the United States and several ban ...
.
Under Taoyateduta's leadership, the Dakota had some success in the ambush of a small detachment of US troops under Captain Marsh at Redwood ferry, an attack on a burial party in the
Battle of Birch Coulee
The Battle of Birch Coulee occurred September 2–3, 1862 and resulted in the heaviest casualties suffered by U.S. forces during the Dakota War of 1862. The battle occurred after a group of Dakota warriors followed a U.S. burial expedition, incl ...
, and killing many unprepared settlers. However, two Dakota attacks on
Fort Ridgely
Fort Ridgely was a frontier United States Army outpost from 1851 to 1867, built 1853–1854 in Minnesota Territory. The Sioux called it Esa Tonka. It was located overlooking the Minnesota river southwest of Fairfax, Minnesota. Half of the ...
were thwarted by soldiers and civilians who, although outnumbered, used the fort's cannon to drive off the attackers. Little Crow was wounded by cannon fire in the second attack on Fort Ridgely, and did not join the
attack on New Ulm. The Dakota attacked
New Ulm twice, and a collection of settlers and volunteers staved off the warriors although they were outnumbered. Attacks on Forest City, Hutchinson, and
Fort Abercrombie
Fort Abercrombie, in North Dakota, was an American fort established by authority of an act of Congress, March 3, 1857. The act allocated twenty-five square miles of land on the Red River of the North in Dakota Territory to be used for a military ...
were also repulsed. The Dakota attacked white civilians throughout the area.
In the end, Little Crow's forces suffered a rout at the
Battle of Wood Lake
The Battle of Wood Lake occurred on September 23, 1862, and was the final battle in the Dakota War of 1862. The two-hour battle, which actually took place at nearby Lone Tree Lake, was a decisive victory for the U.S. forces led by Colonel Henry Ha ...
on September 23, 1862, after which Little Crow and many of his warriors fled west, taking three white boys with them as captives. One of the boys, George Washington Ingalls age 9 (cousin to author
Laura Ingalls
Laura Elizabeth Ingalls Wilder (February 7, 1867 – February 10, 1957) was an American writer, mostly known for the ''Little House on the Prairie'' series of children's books, published between 1932 and 1943, which were based on her childhood ...
) had witnessed the killing and scalping of his father Jedidiah and the capture of his three sisters at the start of the conflict. By late spring 1863, Little Crow and his followers were camped near the Canada–US border. They ransomed the boys in early June 1863, in exchange for blankets and horses.
Death
Deciding that the tribe must adopt a mobile existence, having been deprived of its territory in the War, Little Crow led a raiding party to steal horses from his former land in Minnesota. His people did not want to do this. On the evening of July 3, 1863, while he and his son
''Wowinape'' were picking raspberries, they were spotted by Nathan Lamson and his son Chauncey. The four engaged in a brief firefight. Little Crow wounded the elder Lamson, but was mortally shot by both Lamson and his son. The chief told his own son to flee.
The Lamsons separated, and each traveled the nearly 12 miles to
Hutchinson, Minnesota
Hutchinson is the largest city in McLeod County, Minnesota, McLeod County, Minnesota, United States. It lies along the South Fork of the Crow River (Minnesota), Crow River. The population was 14,599 at the 2010 United States Census, 2020 census.
...
to raise the alarm. The next day, a search party returned and found the body of an unidentified Dakota man. The body wore a coat they recognized as belonging to white settler James McGannon, who had been killed two days before. They scalped the Dakota man, and later brought the body back to Hutchinson. They then dragged his body along the town's Main Street. Firecrackers were placed in his ears and nose and lit. The body was ultimately tossed into a pit at a slaughterhouse. It was later decapitated.
![Henry H](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Henry_H._Cross_-_Little_Crow_-_71.48_-_Minneapolis_Institute_of_Arts.jpg)
On July 28, 1863, Wowinape was captured by US Army troops in the vicinity of Devil's Lake, Dakota Territory. He told the troops of Little Crow's death. Officials tracked down and exhumed the chief's body on August 16. Little Crow's identity was verified by his scarred wrists. The next year, the Legislature awarded Nathan Lamson $500 for "rendering great service to the State". His son Chauncey Lamson received a $75
bounty
Bounty or bounties commonly refers to:
* Bounty (reward), an amount of money or other reward offered by an organization for a specific task done with a person or thing
Bounty or bounties may also refer to:
Geography
* Bounty, Saskatchewan, a g ...
for the scalp, although he had taken it the same day that the Adjutant General's bounty on Dakota warriors was declared on July 4, 1863.
The
Minnesota Historical Society
The Minnesota Historical Society (MNHS) is a nonprofit educational and cultural institution dedicated to preserving the history of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It was founded by the territorial legislature in 1849, almost a decade before statehoo ...
acquired Little Crow's scalp in 1868, and his skull in 1896. Other bones were collected at other times. These
human trophies were displayed publicly for decades.
In 1971, the Society returned Little Crow's remains to his grandson Jesse Wakeman (son of Wowinape) for burial.
A small stone memorial tablet was installed at the roadside of the field where Little Crow was killed.
Legacy
![Little Crow-Minnehaha Park-2007](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Little_Crow-Minnehaha_Park-2007.jpg)
*In 1937, the city of Hutchinson erected a large bronze statue of Little Crow in a spot overlooking the
Crow River near the Main Street bridge access to the downtown business district. It was created by local artist
Les Kouba
Leslie Carl Kouba, also known as Les Kouba, was an American artist, author, outdoorsman, and businessman. He specialized in waterfowl paintings but is also known for his early sculpture of Dakota chief Little Crow, which was commissioned by the ci ...
, who later became known for his wildlife art.
*In 1971 Jesse Wakemen arranged to have the remains of his grandfather Little Crow reinterred at the
First Presbyterian Church and Cemetery in
Flandreau, South Dakota
Flandreau is a city in and county seat of Moody County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 2,372 at the 2020 census. It was named in honor of Charles Eugene Flandrau, a judge in the territory and state of Minnesota. He is credit ...
. The church and cemetery were listed on the U.S.
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the United States federal government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects deemed worthy of preservation for their historical significance or "great artistic v ...
in 2017.
*In 1982, sculptor Robert Johnson and Kouba created an updated statue of Little Crow for the city of Hutchinson, as the older one was weather beaten. It was removed in 2007 and held at the McLeod County Historical Society in order to allow construction of a new Main Street bridge across the river. Eheim Park was redesigned here, and the statue was planned to be reinstalled in a lower position in 2009, so that viewers could appreciate the symbols on the cape. The statue again overlooks the Crow River.
[Where's Little Crow]
" Editorial in the ''Hutchinson Leader,'' 7 May 2009; Accessed 26 Oct. 2012
*A mask commemorating Little Crow was installed near the waterfall in
Minnehaha Park
Minnehaha Park is a city park in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, and home to Minnehaha Falls and the lower reaches of Minnehaha Creek. Officially named Minnehaha Regional Park, it is part of the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board syst ...
in
Minneapolis
Minneapolis () is the largest city in Minnesota, United States, and the county seat of Hennepin County. The city is abundant in water, with thirteen lakes, wetlands, the Mississippi River, creeks and waterfalls. Minneapolis has its origins ...
, however the foundry says there is no correlation between Little Crow and the site.
[Per Note 58 on page 172, in ]
In popular culture
Chief Little Crow appears as one of major supporting characters in the final volume of ''Złoto Gór Czarnych'' (''Gold of the
Black Hills
The Black Hills ( lkt, Ȟe Sápa; chy, Moʼȯhta-voʼhonáaeva; hid, awaxaawi shiibisha) is an isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, United States. Black Elk P ...
''), a trilogy of novels told from the perspective of the Santee
Dakota
Dakota may refer to:
* Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux
** Dakota language, their language
Dakota may also refer to:
Places United States
* Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Dakota, Illinois, a town
* Dakota, Minnesota, a ...
tribe, by Polish author
Alfred Szklarski
Alfred Szklarski (; 21 January 1912 – 9 April 1992) was a Polish author of youth literature. He also published his books under the pseudonyms Alfred Bronowski, Fred Garland and Alfred Murawski.
Biography
Szklarski was born in Chicago, Illi ...
and his wife Krystyna Szklarska.
Notes
References
*
**A reviewer in ''New Mexico Historical Review'' calls Anderson's book a "major contribution to our understanding of an Indian tribe that profoundly influenced the course of history in the upper Mississippi Valley, partly at least through the personal role played by its most famous leader."
*Berg, Scott W. (2012). ''38 Nooses: Lincoln, Little Crow, and the Beginning of the Frontier's End''. New York: Vintage.
* Carley, Kenneth. (2001) ''The Dakota War of 1862.'' Saint Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press.
* Clodfelter, Micheal. (1998) ''The Dakota War: The United States Army Versus the Sioux, 1862–1865.'' Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.
* Mayer, Frank Blackwell. (1986) ''With Pen and Pencil on the Frontier in 1851''. Saint Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. .
* Nix, Jacob. (1994) ''The Sioux Uprising in Minnesota, 1862: Jacob Nix's Eyewitness History.'' Gretchen Steinhauser, Don Heinrich Tolzmann & Eberhard Reichmann, trans. Don Heinrich Tolzmann, ed. Indianapolis: Max Kade German-American Center, Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis and Indiana German Heritage Society, Inc.
* Schultz, Duane. (1992) ''Over the Earth I Come: The Great Sioux Uprising of 1862.'' New York: St. Martin's Press.
* Swain, Gwenyth. (2004) ''Little Crow: Leader of the Dakota.'' Saint Paul, MN, Borealis Books.
* Tolzmann, Don Heinrich, ed. (2002) ''German Pioneer Accounts of the Great Sioux Uprising of 1862.'' Milford, Ohio: Little Miami Publishing Co.
External links
Little Crow Trail*
ttp://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1695080928026296611 Documentary on Little Crow Google Video
Dakota Blues - The history of The Great Sioux Nation*
Little Crow Monument by Les Kouba, HutchinsonFlickriver Photo Gallery
{{DEFAULTSORT:Little Crow
1810s births
1863 deaths
Native American leaders
Murdered Native American people
People from South St. Paul, Minnesota
Dakota people
Dakota War of 1862
People murdered in Minnesota
Deaths by firearm in Minnesota
Human trophy collecting
Year of birth uncertain
1863 murders in the United States