The Tai or Zhuang–Tai languages ( th, ภาษาไท or , transliteration: or ) are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family. The Tai languages include the most widely spoken of the Tai–Kadai languages, including Standard Thai or Siamese, the national language of

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...

; Lao or Laotian, the national language of Laos;

Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...

's Shan language; and Zhuang, a major language in the Southwestern China's

Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Guangxi (; ; alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam ...

, spoken by the Zhuang (壯) people, the largest minority ethnic group in China, with a population of 15.55 million, living mainly in Guangxi, the rest scattered across

Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...

Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020 ...

Guizhou Guizhou (; formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked province in the southwest region of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the province. Guizhou borders the autonomous region of Guangxi to t ...

and

Hunan Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi ...

provinces.

Name

Cognates with the name ''Tai'' (''Thai, Dai'', etc.) are used by speakers of many Tai languages. The term ''Tai'' is now well-established as the generic name in English. In his book '' The Tai-Kadai Languages'' Anthony Diller claims that Lao scholars he has met are not pleased with Lao being regarded as a Tai language.Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerry; Luo, Yongxian (2004). The Tai-Kadai Languages
''Routledge (2004)'', pp. 5-6. . For some, Thai should instead be considered a member of the Lao language family. One or more Ancient Chinese characters for 'Lao' may be cited in support of this alternative appellation. Some scholars including Benedict (1975), have used ''Thai'' to refer to a wider (''Tai'') grouping and one sees designations like '' proto-Thai'' and '' Austro-Thai'' in earlier works. In the institutional context in Thailand, and occasionally elsewhere, sometimes ''Tai'' (and its corresponding Thai-script spelling, without a final -y symbol) is used to indicate varieties in the language family not spoken in Thailand or spoken there only as the result of recent immigration. In this usage ''Thai'' would not then be considered a ''Tai'' language. On the other hand, Gedney, Li and others have preferred to call the standard language of Thailand ''Siamese'' rather than ''Thai'', perhaps to reduce potential ''Thai/Tai'' confusion, especially among English speakers not comfortable with making a word initial unaspirated voiceless sound for ''Tai'', which in any event might sound artificial or arcane to outsiders. According to Michel Ferlus, the ethnonyms Tai/Thai (or Tay/Thay) would have evolved from the etymon *k(ə)ri: 'human being' through the following chain: kəri: > kəli: > kədi:/kədaj (-l- > -d- shift in tense sesquisyllables and probable diphthongization of -i: > -aj).Ferlus, Michel (2009). Formation of Ethnonyms in Southeast Asia
''42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Nov 2009, Chiang Mai, Thailand. 2009'', p.3.Pain, Frédéric (2008). An Introduction to Thai Ethnonymy: Examples from Shan and Northern Thai
''Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 128, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 2008)'', p.646. This in turn changed to di:/daj (presyllabic truncation and probable diphthongization -i: > -aj). And then to *daj^A (Proto-Southwestern Tai) > tʰaj^A2 (in Siamese and Lao) or > taj^A2 (in the other Southwestern and Central Tai languages by Li Fangkuei). Michel Ferlus' work is based on some simple rules of phonetic change observable in the Sinosphere and studied for the most part by William H. Baxter (1992). The Central Tai languages are called ''Zhuang'' in China and Tay and ''Nung'' in Vietnam.

History

Citing the fact that both the Zhuang and Thai peoples have the same exonym for the Vietnamese, ''kɛɛu^A1'', Jerold A. Edmondson of the University of Texas at Arlington posited that the split between Zhuang (a Central Tai language) and the Southwestern Tai languages happened no earlier than the founding of Jiaozhi in Vietnam in 112 BCE but no later than the 5th-6th century AD. Based on layers of Chinese loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai and other historical evidence, Pittayawat Pittayaporn (2014) suggests that the dispersal of Southwestern Tai must have begun sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries AD.Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai
''MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities,'' Special Issue No 20: 47–64.

Connection to ancient Yue language(s)

The Tai languages descend from proto-Tai-Kadai, which has been hypothesized to originate in the Lower Yangtze valleys. Ancient Chinese texts refer to non-Sinitic languages spoken across this substantial region and their speakers as ''" Yue"''. Although those languages are extinct, traces of their existence could be found in unearthed inscriptional materials, ancient Chinese historical texts and non-Han substrata in various Southern Chinese dialects. Thai, as the most-spoken language in the Tai-Kadai language family, has been used extensively in historical-comparative linguistics to identify the origins of language(s) spoken in the ancient region of South China. One of the very few direct records of non-Sinitic speech in pre-Qin and Han times having been preserved so far is the ''" Song of the Yue Boatman"'' (Yueren Ge 越人歌), which was transcribed phonetically in Chinese characters in 528 BC, and found in the 善说 Shanshuo chapter of the Shuoyuan 说苑 or 'Garden of Persuasions'. In the early 1980's the Zhuang linguist Wei Qingwen using reconstructed Old Chinese for the characters discovered that the resulting vocabulary showed strong resemblance to modern Zhuang. Later, Zhengzhang Shangfang (1991) followed Wei's insight but used Thai orthography for comparison, since this orthography dates from the 13th century and preserves archaisms vis-à-vis the modern pronunciation.

Internal classification

Haudricourt (1956)

Haudricourt emphasizes the specificity of Dioi (Zhuang) and proposes to make a two-way distinction between the following two sets. The original language names used in Haudricourt's (1956) are provided first; alternative names are given in parentheses. * Tai ** Dioi group: Yei Zhuang, Yongbei Zhuang, Youjiang Zhuang, Bouyei (Buyi) ** Tai proper: Ahom, Shan, Siamese (Thai), Lao, White Tai (Tai Dón), Black Tai (Tai Dam), Southern Zhuang, Tho (Tày), Nung Characteristics of the Dioi group pointed out by Haudricourt are * r- corresponding to the lateral l- in the other Tai languages, * divergent vowel system characteristics, e.g. 'tail' has an /a/ vowel in Tai proper, as against /ə̄/ in Bo-ai, /iə/ in Tianzhou, and /ɯə/ in Tianzhou and Wuming, and * the lack of aspirated stops and affricates, which are found everywhere in Tai proper.

Li (1977)

Li Fang-Kuei divided Tai into three sister branches. * Tai ** Northern Tai ** Central Tai **

Southwestern Tai The Southwestern Tai, Southwestern Thai or Thai languages are a branch of the Tai languages of Southeast Asia. Its dialects include Siamese (Central Thai), Lanna, Lao, Shan and others. Classification The internal classification of the Southwe ...

(Thai) Li's Northern group corresponds to Haudricourt's Dioi group, while his Central and Southwestern groups correspond to Haudricourt's Tai proper. The three last languages in Haudricourt's list of 'Tai proper' languages are Tho (Tày), Longzhou, and Nung, which Li classifies as 'Central Tai'. This classification scheme has long been accepted as standard in comparative Tai linguistics. However, Central Tai does not appear to be a

monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic ...

group.

Gedney (1989)

Gedney (1989) considers Central and Southwestern Tai to form a subgroup, of which Northern Tai is a sister. The top-level branching is in agreement with Haudricourt (1956). * Tai ** Northern Tai ** *** Central Tai ***

Luo (1997)

Luo Yongxian (1997) classifies the Tai languages as follows, introducing a fourth branch called ''Northwestern Tai'' that includes Ahom, Shan, Dehong Dai, and Khamti. All branches are considered to be coordinate to each other. * Tai ** Northern Tai ** Central Tai **

** Northwestern Tai

Pittayaporn (2009)

Overview

Pittayawat Pittayaporn (2009) classifies the Tai languages based on clusters of shared innovations (which, individually, may be associated with more than one branch) (Pittayaporn 2009:298). In Pittayaporn's preliminary classification system of the Tai languages, Central Tai is considered to be paraphyletic and is split up into multiple branches, with the Zhuang varieties of Chongzuo in southwestern Guangxi (especially in the Zuo River valley at the border to Vietnam) having the most internal diversity. The

and Northern Tai branches remain intact as in Li Fang-Kuei's 1977 classification system, and several of the Southern Zhuang languages allocated ISO codes are considered to be paraphyletic. The classification is as follows. * Tai ** D: Northern Tai *** I:

Qinzhou Zhuang The Zhuang languages (; autonym: , pre-1982: , Sawndip: 話僮, from ''vah'', 'language' and ''Cuengh'', 'Zhuang'; ) are any of more than a dozen Tai languages spoken by the Zhuang people of Southern China in the province of Guangxi and adjac ...

(Yongnan Zhuang of Qinzhou) *** J **** M: Wuming Zhuang, Yongnan Zhuang, Long'an Zhuang, Fusui **** N: Core Northern Tai: Saek, Bouyei,

Yay Yay may refer to: * St. Anthony Airport, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, by IATA code * Gwune language, by ISO 639-3 code * ''Yay!'', a 2023 album by Norwegian progressive metal band Motorpsycho * Yay language, an alternate name for Bouyei, in s ...

, Youjiang Zhuang and others ** C:

Chongzuo Zhuang The Zhuang languages (; autonym: , pre-1982: , Sawndip: 話僮, from ''vah'', 'language' and ''Cuengh'', 'Zhuang'; ) are any of more than a dozen Tai languages spoken by the Zhuang people of Southern China in the province of Guangxi and adjacen ...

(Yongnan Zhuang of Chongzuo),

Shangsi Zhuang The Zhuang languages (; autonym: , pre-1982: , Sawndip: 話僮, from ''vah'', 'language' and ''Cuengh'', 'Zhuang'; ) are any of more than a dozen Tai languages spoken by the Zhuang people of Southern China in the province of Guangxi and adjac ...

(Yongnan Zhuang of Shangsi), Caolan (Vietnam) ** B: Ningming Zhuang (Zuojiang Zhuang of Ningming) ** A *** F:

Lungchow Longzhou County Standard Zhuang, Zhuang: ''Lungzcouh Yen'') is a County (People's Republic of China), county of southwestern Guangxi, China, bordering Cao Bằng province, Vietnam. It is under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city ...

Zhuang, Leiping Zhuang *** E **** H: Lungming Zhuang, Daxin Zhuang **** G ***** L (Nung): Yang Zhuang of Debao, Yang Zhuang of Jingxi, (Western) Nung of Mường Khương District, Nong Zhuang of Wenshan City), Nong Zhuang of Yanshan ***** K ****** P (Tay): Tày of Bảo Yên, Tày of Cao Bằng,

Dai Zhuang Dai Zhuang or Thu Lao is a Tai language spoken in Yunnan, China and northern Vietnam. In China is it spoken in Yanshan, Wenshan, Maguan, Malipo, Guangnan counties of Wenshan Prefecture. It is also spoken in Honghe Prefecture. The largest concentr ...

of Wenma (文麻) ****** O ******* R: Sapa (Vietnam) ******* Q:

(Laos, Thailand, Burma) Standard Zhuang is based on the dialect of Shuangqiao (双桥), Wuming District. Zhuang survey sites

Sound changes

The following phonological shifts occurred in the Q (Southwestern), N (Northern), B (Ningming), and C (Chongzuo) subgroups (Pittayaporn 2009:300–301). Furthermore, the following shifts occurred at various nodes leading up to node Q. * E: *p.t- > *p.r-; *ɯm > *ɤm * G: *k.r- > *qr- * K: *eː, *oː > *ɛː, *ɔː * O: *ɤn > *on * Q: *kr- > *ʰr-

Edmondson (2013)

Jerold A. Edmondson's (2013) computational phylogenetic analysis of the Tai languages is shown below. Tay and Nung are both shown to be coherent branches under Central Tai. Northern Tai and

are also shown to be coherent branches. * Tai ** Northern Tai: Buyi,

, Po-Ai, Wuming Zhuang, Mashan Zhuang ** *** Central Tai **** core Central Tai: Nung Chau, Pingxiang Zhuang, Leiping Zhuang, Ningming Zhuang **** Nung: Western Nung, Nung Yang, Nung An, Thu Lao **** Tay: Tay Bao Lac, Tay Khanh Trung, Cao Lan ***

: Ahom, Shan, Dehong, Tai Theeng (Nghe An), Black Tai, White Tai, Padi, Lao, Thai

Reconstruction

Proto-Tai has been reconstructed in 1977 by Li Fang-Kuei and by Pittayawat Pittayaporn in 2009. Proto-Southwestern Tai has also been reconstructed in 1977 by Li Fang-Kuei and by Nanna L. Jonsson in 1991.

Comparison

Below is comparative table of Tai languages.

Writing systems

Many Southwestern Tai languages are written using Brahmi-derived alphabets. Zhuang languages are traditionally written with

Chinese characters Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as '' kan ...

called

Sawndip Zhuang characters or ''Sawndip'' (Sawndip: ; ) are logograms derived from Chinese characters and used by the Zhuang people of Guangxi and Yunnan provinces in China to write the Zhuang languages for more than one thousand years. The script is ...

, and now officially written with a romanized alphabet, though the traditional writing system is still in use to this day. * Thai scriptbr>
* Lao scriptbr>
*

br>
* Shan scriptbr>
* Ahom scriptbr>
*

Tai Viet script The Tai Viet script (Tai Dam: ("Tai script"), Vietnamese: Chữ Thái Việt) ( th, อักษรไทดำ, ) is a Brahmic script used by the Tai Dam people and various other Thai people in Vietnam and Thailand.
* Tai Le scriptbr>
* New Tai Lue alphabetbr>
* Tai Tham scriptbr>

Notes

References

* Brown, J. Marvin. ''From Ancient Thai to Modern Dialects''. Bangkok: Social Science Association Press of Thailand, 1965. * Chamberlain, James R. ''A New Look at the Classification of the Tai Languages''. [s.l: s.n, 1972. * Conference on Tai Phonetics and Phonology, Jimmy G. Harris, and Richard B. Noss. ''Tai Phonetics and Phonology''. [Bangkok: Central Institute of English Language, Office of State Universities, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 1972. * Diffloth, Gérard. ''An Appraisal of Benedict's Views on Austroasiatic and Austro-Thai Relations''. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 1976. * Đoàn, Thiện Thuật. ''Tay-Nung Language in the North Vietnam''. [Tokyo?]: Instttute [sic] for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1996. * Gedney, William J. ''On the Thai Evidence for Austro-Thai''. [S.l: s.n, 1976. * Gedney, William J., and Robert J. Bickner. ''Selected Papers on Comparative Tai Studies''. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 29. Ann Arbor, Mich., USA: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1989. * Gedney, William J., Carol J. Compton, and John F. Hartmann. ''Papers on Tai Languages, Linguistics, and Literatures: In Honor of William J. Gedney on His 77th Birthday''. Monograph series on Southeast Asia.

e Kalb E, or e, is the fifth letter and the second vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''e'' (pronounced ); plura ...

Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1992. * Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. (1995). ''William J. Gedney's central Tai dialects: glossaries, texts, and translations''. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 43. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan * Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. ''William J. Gedney's the Yay Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations''. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 38. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1991. * Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. ''William J. Gedney's Southwestern Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts and Translations''. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 42.

nn Arbor, Mich. NN, Nn, or nn may refer to: Businesses and organizations *Nationale-Nederlanden, a Dutch insurance company commonly referred to as NN * Netroots Nation, a political convention for American progressive activists * Nevada Northern Railway (reporti ...

Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1994. * Hudak, Thomas John. ''William J. Gedney's The Tai Dialect of Lungming: Glossary, Texts, and Translations''. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 39.

nn Arbor NN, Nn, or nn may refer to: Businesses and organizations *Nationale-Nederlanden, a Dutch insurance company commonly referred to as NN * Netroots Nation, a political convention for American progressive activists * Nevada Northern Railway (reporti ...

Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1991. * Li, Fang-kuei. 1977. ''Handbook of Comparative Tai''. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʼi Press. * Li, Fang-kuei. ''The Tai Dialect of Lungchow; Texts, Translations, and Glossary''. Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1940. * Østmoe, Arne. ''A Germanic–Tai Linguistic Puzzle''. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 64. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania, 1995. * Sathāban Sūn Phāsā Qangkrit. ''Bibliography of Tai Language Studies''. angkok Indigenous Languages of Thailand Research Project, Central Institute of English Language, Office of State Universities, 1977. * Shorto, H. L. ''Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics''. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. * Tingsabadh, Kalaya and Arthur S. Abramson. ''Essays in Tai Linguistics''. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 2001.

External links

SEAlang Library

Comparative Tai–Kadai Swadesh vocabulary lists
(from Wiktionary'
Swadesh-list appendix

ABVD: Proto-Tai word list

ABVD: Proto-Southwestern Tai word list
* Kelley, Liam
Tai Words and the Place of the Tai in the Vietnamese Past
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tai Languages Languages of Southeast Asia