Tagalog grammar (Tagalog: ''Balarilà ng Tagalog'') is the body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in the
Tagalog language
Tagalog (, ; ; '' Baybayin'': ) is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by the ethnic Tagalog people, who make up a quarter of the population of the Philippines, and as a second language by the majority. Its standardized form, ...
, the language of the Tagalog region of
the Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
.
In Tagalog, there are nine basic parts of speech:
nouns
A noun () is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Example nouns for:
* Living creatures (including people, alive, d ...
(''pangngalan''),
pronouns
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase.
Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the part of speech, parts o ...
(''panghalip''),
verbs
A verb () is a word (part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descrip ...
(''pandiwa''),
adverbs An adverb is a word or an expression that generally modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering que ...
(''pang-abay''),
adjectives
In linguistics, an adjective (abbreviated ) is a word that generally modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun.
Traditionally, adjectives were considered one of the mai ...
(''pang-uri''),
prepositions
Prepositions and postpositions, together called adpositions (or broadly, in traditional grammar, simply prepositions), are a class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations (''in'', ''under'', ''towards'', ''before'') or mark various ...
(''pang-ukol''),
conjunctions (''pangatnig''),
ligatures (''pang-angkop'') and
particle
In the Outline of physical science, physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small wikt:local, localized physical body, object which can be described by several physical property, physical or chemical property, chemical ...
s. Tagalog is an
agglutinative
In linguistics, agglutination is a morphological process in which words are formed by stringing together morphemes, each of which corresponds to a single syntactic feature. Languages that use agglutination widely are called agglutinative langu ...
yet slightly
inflected
In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and defi ...
language.
Pronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase.
Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not co ...
s are inflected for
number
A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers c ...
and
verb
A verb () is a word (part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descri ...
s for
focus
Focus, or its plural form foci may refer to:
Arts
* Focus or Focus Festival, former name of the Adelaide Fringe arts festival in South Australia Film
*''Focus'', a 1962 TV film starring James Whitmore
* ''Focus'' (2001 film), a 2001 film based ...
,
aspect
Aspect or Aspects may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Aspect magazine'', a biannual DVD magazine showcasing new media art
* Aspect Co., a Japanese video game company
* Aspects (band), a hip hop group from Bristol, England
* ''Aspects'' (Benny Carter ...
and
voice
The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal tract, including talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, shouting, humming or yelling. The human voice frequency is specifically a part of human sound production in ...
.
Verbs
Tagalog verbs are morphologically complex and are conjugated by taking on a variety of affixes reflecting focus/trigger, aspect, voice, and other categories. Below is a chart of the main verbal
affix
In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or inflectional, like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. They ar ...
es, which consist of a variety of
prefixes
A prefix is an affix which is placed before the Word stem, stem of a word. Adding it to the beginning of one word changes it into another word. For example, when the prefix ''un-'' is added to the word ''happy'', it creates the word ''unhappy'' ...
,
suffix
In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry ...
es,
infixes, and
circumfixes.
Conventions used in the chart:
* ''CV~'' stands for the
reduplicated
In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change.
The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edwar ...
first syllable of a root word, which is usually the first consonant and the first vowel of the word.
* ''N'' stands for a nasal consonant which assimilates to ''ng'', ''n'', or ''m'' depending on the consonant following it. ''∅'' means that the verb root is used, therefore no affixes are added.
* Punctuation marks indicate the type of affix a particular bound
morpheme
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful Constituent (linguistics), constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistics, linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology (linguistics), morphology.
In English, morphemes are ...
is; hyphens mark prefixes and suffixes, and ' is an infix that is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of a root word. The word ''sumulat (sulat)'' (actor focus and completed aspect or infinitive) is composed of the root word ''sulat'' and the infix '. Its other
conjugated forms are ''susulat (su~sulat)'' and ''sumusulat (su~sulat)''.
With object-focus verbs in the completed and progressive aspects, the infix ''-in-'' frequently becomes the infix ''-ni-'' or the prefix ''ni-'' if the root word begins with , , , or ; e.g., ''linalapitan'' or ''nilalapitan'' and ''inilagay'' or ''ilinagay''.
With the suffixes ''-in'' and ''-an'', if the root word ends in a vowel, the suffixes insert an h at the beginning to become ''-hin'' and ''-han'' to make speaking more natural. This does not usually happen with root words ending in pseudo-vowels such as ''w'' and ''y''. An example of this is ''basa'' which becomes ''basahin'' rather than ''basain''.
The imperative affixes are not often used in Manila, but they do exist in other Tagalog speaking provinces.
Aspect
The
aspect
Aspect or Aspects may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Aspect magazine'', a biannual DVD magazine showcasing new media art
* Aspect Co., a Japanese video game company
* Aspects (band), a hip hop group from Bristol, England
* ''Aspects'' (Benny Carter ...
of the verb indicates the progressiveness of the verb. It specifies whether the action happened, is happening, or will happen. Tagalog verbs are conjugated for time using aspect rather than tense.
Infinitive ''(Pawatas)''
This is the combination of the root word and an affix. This is the basis for most verbs.
Complete ''(Naganap/Perpektibo)''
This states that the action has been completed.
An infinitive with the affix ''um'' and a complete aspect are the same.
An infinitive with the affixes ''ma'', ''mag'' and ''mang'' will become ''na'', ''nag'' and ''nang'' in the complete aspect.
The affix ''in'' in an infinitive will be a prefix if the root word begins with a vowel and an infix if the root word begins with a consonant. If the affix is ''hin'', then ''hin'' will become ''in''.
Progressive ''(Nagaganap/Imperpektibo)''
This states that the action is still ongoing and still not done.
If the infinitive has the affix ''um'', the first syllable or the first two letters of the root word will be repeated. Note that in certain contexts, the infinitive form can also mean that the action has been completed(Naganap).
If the infinitive has the affixes ''ma'', ''mag'' and ''mang'', change it to ''na'', ''nag'' and ''nang'' and repeat the first syllable or first two letters of the root word.
If the infinitive has the affixes ''in'' or ''hin'' and the root word starts with a vowel, put the affix at the start and repeat the first syllable or first two letters of the root word.
If the infinitive has the affixes ''in'' or ''hin'' and the root word starts with a consonant, make the affix into an infix and repeat the first syllable or first two letters of the root word.
Contemplative ''(Magaganap/Kontemplatibo)''
This states that the action has not yet started but anticipated.
If the infinitive has the affix ''um'', remove the ''um'' and repeat the first syllable or first two letters of the root word.
If the infinitive has the affixes ''ma'', ''mag'' and ''mang'', retain it and repeat the first syllable or first two letters of the root word.
If the infinitive has the affixes ''in'' or ''hin'', retain it and repeat the first syllable or first two letters of the root word.
Recently Complete ''(Katatapos)''
This states that the action has just been completed before the time of speaking or before a specified time.
Usually, the prefix ''ka'' is used and the first syllable or the first two letters of the root word will be repeated.
Trigger
The central feature of verbs in Tagalog and other Philippine languages is the ''
trigger system'', often called
voice
The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal tract, including talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, shouting, humming or yelling. The human voice frequency is specifically a part of human sound production in ...
or
focus
Focus, or its plural form foci may refer to:
Arts
* Focus or Focus Festival, former name of the Adelaide Fringe arts festival in South Australia Film
*''Focus'', a 1962 TV film starring James Whitmore
* ''Focus'' (2001 film), a 2001 film based ...
. In this system, the
thematic relation
In certain theories of linguistics, thematic relations, also known as semantic roles, are the various roles that a noun phrase may play with respect to the action or state described by a governing verb, commonly the sentence's main verb. For exam ...
(
agent
Agent may refer to:
Espionage, investigation, and law
*, spies or intelligence officers
* Law of agency, laws involving a person authorized to act on behalf of another
** Agent of record, a person with a contractual agreement with an insuranc ...
,
patient
A patient is any recipient of health care services that are performed by healthcare professionals. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a physician, nurse, optometrist, dentist, veterinarian, or other health c ...
, or other oblique relationslocation, direction, etc.) of the noun marked by the direct-case particle is encoded in the verb.
In its default
unmarked
In linguistics and social sciences, markedness is the state of standing out as nontypical or divergent as opposed to regular or common. In a marked–unmarked relation, one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one. The dominant defau ...
form, the verb triggers a reading of the direct noun as the patient of the clause. In its second most common form, it triggers the noun as the agent of the clause. Other triggers are location, beneficiary, instrument, reason, direction, and the
reciprocal
Reciprocal may refer to:
In mathematics
* Multiplicative inverse, in mathematics, the number 1/''x'', which multiplied by ''x'' gives the product 1, also known as a ''reciprocal''
* Reciprocal polynomial, a polynomial obtained from another pol ...
.
Patient trigger forms
There are three main patient-trigger affixes:
* ''-in'' is used for:
** Items that are moved towards the actor: ''kainin'' (to eat something), ''bilhín'' (to buy something).
** Items that are permanently changed: ''basagin'' (to crack something), ''patayín'' (to kill something).
** Items that are thought of: ''isipin'' (to think of something), ''alalahanin'' (to remember something).
* ''i-'' is used for items which undergo a change of state such as being moved away from an actor: ''ibigáy'' (to give something), ''ilagáy'' (to put something), ''itaním'' (to plant something).
* ''-an'' is used for items undergoing a surface change (e.g., cleaning): ''hugasan'' (to rinse something), ''walisán'' (to sweep something off).
Affixes can also be used in nouns or adjectives: ''baligtaran'' (from ''baligtád'', to reverse) (reversible), ''katamaran'' (from ''tamád'', lazy) (laziness), ''kasabihán'' (from ''sabi'', to say) (proverb), ''kasagutan'' (from ''sagót'', answer), ''bayarín'' (from ''bayad'', to pay) (payment), ''bukirín'' (from ''bukid'', farm), ''lupaín'' (from ''lupa'', land), ''pagkakaroón'' (from ''doón/roón'', there) (having/appearance), and ''pagdárasál'' (from ''dasál'', prayer). Verbs with affixes (mostly suffixes) are also used as nouns, which are differentiated by stress position. Examples are ''panoorin'' (to watch or view) and ''panoorín'' (materials to be watched or viewed), ''hangarín'' (to wish) and ''hangarin'' (goal/objective), ''aralin'' (to study) and ''aralín'' (studies), and ''bayaran'' (to pay) and ''bayarán'' (someone or something for hire).
Agent trigger forms
The agent-trigger affixes are ''-um-'', ''mag-'', ''man-'', and ''ma-''. The difference between ''mag-'' and ''-um-'' is a source of confusion among learners of the language. Generally speaking, there are two main distinctions among many; ''mag-'' refers to externally directed actions and ''-um-'' for internally directed actions. For example, ''bumilí'' means ''to buy'' while ''magbilí'' means ''to sell''. However this isn't writ law for these affixes; there are exceptions for example, ''mag-ahit'' means ''to shave oneself'' while ''umahit'' means ''to shave someone''. ''magbili'' and ''umahit'' are rarely used; in southern dialects of Tagalog na- is used instead of -um-.
''ma-'' is used with only a few roots which are semantically intransitive, for example, ''matulog'' (to sleep). ''Ma-'' is not to be confused with ''ma-'', the prefix for patient-triggered verb forms.
List of triggers and examples
The patient trigger takes the direct noun as the patient (object) of the action:
*''Binilí ng lalaki
ang saging sa tindahan para sa unggóy.''
:''The man bought
the banana at the store for the monkey.''
The agent trigger marks the direct noun as the agent:
*''Bumilí ng saging
ang lalaki sa tindahan para sa unggóy.''
:''
The man bought bananas at the store for the monkey.''
The
locative
In grammar, the locative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases, together with the ...
trigger refers to the location or direction of an action or the area affected by the action.
*''Binilhan ng lalaki ng saging
ang tindahan.''
:''The man bought bananas
at the store.''
The
benefactive
The benefactive case (abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used where English would use "for", "for the benefit of", or "intended for", e.g. "She opened the door ''for Tom''" or "This book is ''for Bob''" ...
trigger refers to the person or thing that benefits from the action; i.e., the beneficiary of an action.
*''Ibinilí ng lalaki ng saging
ang unggóy.''
:''The man bought bananas
for the monkey''.''
The
instrumental
An instrumental is a recording normally without any vocals, although it might include some inarticulate vocals, such as shouted backup vocals in a big band setting. Through semantic widening, a broader sense of the word song may refer to instru ...
trigger refers to the means by which an action is performed.
*''Ipinambilí ng lalaki ng saging
ang pera'' ''ng asawa niyá.''
:''The man bought bananas
with his spouse's
money.''
The
reason
Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, ...
trigger refers to the cause or reason why an action is performed.
* ''Ikinagulat ng lalaki'' ''
ang pagdatíng ng unggóy''.
:''The man got surprised
because of the monkey's
arrival.''
The
directional trigger refers to the direction the action will go to.
*''Pinuntahan ng lalaki
ang tindahan.''
:''The man went
to the store.''
The
reciprocal
Reciprocal may refer to:
In mathematics
* Multiplicative inverse, in mathematics, the number 1/''x'', which multiplied by ''x'' gives the product 1, also known as a ''reciprocal''
* Reciprocal polynomial, a polynomial obtained from another pol ...
trigger refers to the action being done by the subjects at the same time. The subject is usually compound, plural or collective.
*''Naghalikan ang magkasintahan.''
:''The couple kissed (each other).''
Mood
Tagalog verbs also have affixes expressing
grammatical mood
In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used for signaling modality. That is, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying (for example, a statement of ...
; some examples are
indicative
A realis mood ( abbreviated ) is a grammatical mood which is used principally to indicate that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences. Mos ...
,
potential
Potential generally refers to a currently unrealized ability. The term is used in a wide variety of fields, from physics to the social sciences to indicate things that are in a state where they are able to change in ways ranging from the simple re ...
, social, and distributed.
Indicative
Nagdalá siyá ng liham.
"(S)he brought a letter."
Bumilí kamí ng bigás sa palengke.
"We bought rice in the market."
Kumain akó.
"I ate."
Hindî siyá nagsásalitâ ng Tagalog.
"(S)he does not speak Tagalog."
Distributive
Namili kamí sa palengke.
"We went shopping in the market."
Social
Nakikain akó sa mga kaibigan ko.
"I ate with my friends."
Potential ''maka-''
Hindî siyá nakapagsásalitâ ng Tagalog.
"(S)he was not able to speak Tagalog."
Nouns
While Tagalog nouns are not
inflected
In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and defi ...
, they are usually preceded by case-marking
particles
In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small localized object which can be described by several physical or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass.
They vary greatly in size or quantity, from s ...
. These follow an
Austronesian alignment
Symmetrical voice, also known as Austronesian alignment, the Philippine-type voice system or the Austronesian focus system, is a typologically unusual kind of morphosyntactic alignment in which "one argument can be marked as having a special relat ...
, also known as a ''trigger'' system, which is a distinct feature of
Austronesian languages. There are three basic cases: ''
direct
Direct may refer to:
Mathematics
* Directed set, in order theory
* Direct limit of (pre), sheaves
* Direct sum of modules, a construction in abstract algebra which combines several vector spaces
Computing
* Direct access (disambiguation), a ...
'' (or
absolutive
In grammar, the absolutive case (abbreviated ) is the case of nouns in ergative–absolutive languages that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative ...
, often less accurately labeled the
nominative
In grammar, the nominative case (abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or (in Latin and formal variants of Engl ...
); ''indirect'' (which may function as an
ergative,
accusative
The accusative case (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb.
In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: 'me,' 'him,' 'her,' 'us,' and ‘the ...
, or
genitive
In grammar, the genitive case (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can al ...
); and ''
oblique
Oblique may refer to:
* an alternative name for the character usually called a slash (punctuation) ( / )
* Oblique angle, in geometry
*Oblique triangle, in geometry
*Oblique lattice, in geometry
* Oblique leaf base, a characteristic shape of the b ...
''.
The direct case is used for
intransitive
In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb whose context does not entail a direct object. That lack of transitivity distinguishes intransitive verbs from transitive verbs, which entail one or more objects. Additionally, intransitive verbs are ...
clauses. In
transitive clauses using the default
grammatical voice
In linguistics, grammaticality is determined by the conformity to language usage as derived by the grammar of a particular speech variety. The notion of grammaticality rose alongside the theory of generative grammar, the goal of which is to form ...
of Tagalog, the direct marks the
patient
A patient is any recipient of health care services that are performed by healthcare professionals. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a physician, nurse, optometrist, dentist, veterinarian, or other health c ...
(
direct object
In linguistics, an object is any of several types of arguments. In subject-prominent, nominative-accusative languages such as English, a transitive verb typically distinguishes between its subject and any of its objects, which can include but ...
) and the indirect marks the
agent
Agent may refer to:
Espionage, investigation, and law
*, spies or intelligence officers
* Law of agency, laws involving a person authorized to act on behalf of another
** Agent of record, a person with a contractual agreement with an insuranc ...
, corresponding to the subject in English. In the more
marked
In linguistics and social sciences, markedness is the state of standing out as nontypical or divergent as opposed to regular or common. In a marked–unmarked relation, one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one. The dominant defau ...
voice the reverse occurs, with the direct marking the agent and the indirect marking the patient. Because the base form of the clause is superficially similar to the
passive voice
A passive voice construction is a grammatical voice construction that is found in many languages. In a clause with passive voice, the grammatical subject expresses the ''theme'' or ''patient'' of the main verb – that is, the person or thing t ...
in English, this has led to a misconception that Tagalog is spoken primarily in the passive voice. It is also superficially similar to
ergative languages such as those of Australia, so Tagalog has also been analyzed as an ergative language. However, the English passive clause is intransitive, and likewise in ergative languages one of the voices forms an intransitive clause, whereas in Tagalog both voices are transitive, and so align well with neither
nominative–accusative languages such as English nor with ergative languages.
One of the functions of voice in Tagalog is to code
definiteness
In linguistics, definiteness is a semantic feature of noun phrases, distinguishing between referents or senses that are identifiable in a given context (definite noun phrases) and those which are not (indefinite noun phrases). The prototypical d ...
, analogous to the use of definite and indefinite articles in English. When the patient is marked with the direct case particle, it is generally definite, whereas when it is marked with the indirect case it is generally indefinite.
The oblique particle and the
locative
In grammar, the locative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases, together with the ...
derived from it are similar to prepositions in English, marking things such as location and direction.
The case particles fall into two
classes: one used with names of people (
proper
Proper may refer to:
Mathematics
* Proper map, in topology, a property of continuous function between topological spaces, if inverse images of compact subsets are compact
* Proper morphism, in algebraic geometry, an analogue of a proper map for ...
) and one for everything else (
common
Common may refer to:
Places
* Common, a townland in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland
* Boston Common, a central public park in Boston, Massachusetts
* Cambridge Common, common land area in Cambridge, Massachusetts
* Clapham Common, originally com ...
).
The common indirect marker is spelled ''ng'' and pronounced . ''Mgá'', pronounced , marks the common plural.
Tagalog has associative plural in addition to additive plural.
Cases
Common noun affixes
Examples
Note that in Tagalog, even proper nouns require a case marker.
Pronouns
Like nouns, personal pronouns are categorized by case. As above, the indirect forms also function as the genitive.
Examples:
''Sumulat ako.''
"I wrote."
''Sinulatan ako ng liham.''
"He/She/They wrote me a letter."
Note: If "''ng liham''" is removed from the sentence, it becomes "I was written on"
''Ibíbigay ko sa kaniyá.''
"I will give it to him/her/them."
Genitive pronouns follow the word they modify. Oblique pronouns can take the place of the genitive pronoun but they precede the word they modify.
''Ang bahay ko.''
''Ang aking bahay.''
"My house."
The inclusive dual pronoun ''kata/kitá'' has largely disappeared from the Manila Dialect. It survives in other Tagalog dialects, particularly those spoken in the rural areas. However ''kitá'' is used to replace the pronoun sequence ''
erb
Erb, ERB or ErB may refer to:
People
* Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875–1950), American author
* Erb of Gwent (–), king of Gwent and Glywysing
Surname
* Abraham Erb (1772–1830), American-born Canadian settler
* Albrecht Erb (1628–1714), Aus ...
ko ikaw'', (I
erb
Erb, ERB or ErB may refer to:
People
* Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875–1950), American author
* Erb of Gwent (–), king of Gwent and Glywysing
Surname
* Abraham Erb (1772–1830), American-born Canadian settler
* Albrecht Erb (1628–1714), Aus ...
you).
The 1st–2nd dual pronoun "''kata/kitá''" referring to "you and I" is traditionally used as follows:
''Mágkaibigan kitá.'' (Manila Dialect: ''Mágkaibigan tayo.'')
"You and I are friends." (Manila Dialect: “We are friends.")
As previously mentioned, the pronoun sequence ''
erb
Erb, ERB or ErB may refer to:
People
* Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875–1950), American author
* Erb of Gwent (–), king of Gwent and Glywysing
Surname
* Abraham Erb (1772–1830), American-born Canadian settler
* Albrecht Erb (1628–1714), Aus ...
ko ikáw'', (I
erb
Erb, ERB or ErB may refer to:
People
* Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875–1950), American author
* Erb of Gwent (–), king of Gwent and Glywysing
Surname
* Abraham Erb (1772–1830), American-born Canadian settler
* Albrecht Erb (1628–1714), Aus ...
you) may be replaced by ''kitá''.
''Mahál kitá.''
"I love you."
''Bíbigyan kitá ng pera.''
"I will give you money."
''Nakita kitá sa tindahan kahapon.''
"I saw you at the store yesterday."
''Kaibigan kitá.''
"You are my friend."
The inclusive pronoun ''tayo'' refers to the first and second persons. It may also refer to a third person(s).
The exclusive pronoun ''kamí'' refers to the first and third persons but excludes the second.
''Walâ tayong bigás.''
"We (you and me) have no rice."
''Walâ kaming bigás.''
"We (someone else and me, but not you) have no rice."
The second person singular has two forms. ''Ikáw'' is the non-enclitic form while ''ka'' is the
enclitic
In morphology and syntax, a clitic (, backformed from Greek "leaning" or "enclitic"Crystal, David. ''A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics''. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1980. Print.) is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a wo ...
which never begins a sentence. The plural form ''kayó'' is also used politely in the singular, similar to French ''vous''.
Nouns are
gender neutral, hence ''siyá'' means ''he,'' ''she,'' or
''they'' (singular).
Polite or formal usage
Tagalog, like many languages, marks the
T–V distinction
The T–V distinction is the contextual use of different pronouns that exists in some languages and serves to convey formality or familiarity. Its name comes from the Latin pronouns '' tu'' and '' vos''. The distinction takes a number of forms ...
: when addressing a single person in polite/formal/respectful settings, pronouns from either the 2nd person plural or the 3rd person plural group are used instead of the singular 2nd person pronoun. They can be used with, or in lieu of, the ''pô/hô'' iterations without losing any degree of politeness, formality, or respect:
*''ikáw'' or ''ka'' ("you" sgl.) becomes ''kayó'' ("you" pl.) or ''silá'' ("they")
*''mo'' (post-substantive "your") becomes ''niyó'' or ''ninyó'' (more polite), (post-substantive "your" pl.) or ''nilá'' (post-substantive "their")
*''iyó(ng)'' ("yours" sgl. or pre-substantive "your" sgl.) becomes ''inyó(ng)'' ("yours" pl. or pre-substantive "your" pl.) or ''kanilá(ng)'' ("theirs" or pre-substantive "their")
Example:
English: "What's your name?"
Casual: ''Anó'ng pangalan mo?''
Respectful: ''Anó'ng pangalan ninyo?'' or ''Anó'ng pangalan nilá''?
Using such pluralized pronouns is quite sufficient for expressing politeness, formality or respect, particularly when an affirmative (or negative) ''pô/hô'' iteration isn't necessary.
Demonstrative pronouns
Tagalog's demonstrative pronouns are as follows.
*Many Tagalog speakers may use ''itó'' in place of ''iré/aré''.
Examples:
Anó itó?
"What's this?"
Sino ang lalaking iyon?
"Who is that man?"
Galing kay Pedro ang liham na itó.
"This letter is from Pedro."
Nandito akó.
"I am here."
Kakain silá roón.
"They will eat there."
Saán ka man naróroon.
"Wherever you are."
Kumain niyán ang batà.
"The child ate some of that."
Ayón palá ang salamín mo!
"So that's where your glasses are!"
Heto isang regalo para sa iyó.
"Here's a gift for you."
Adjectives
Just like English adjectives, Tagalog adjectives modify a noun or a pronoun.
Forms
Simple (''Payak'')
These consist of only the root word.
Examples: hinog (''ripe''), sabog (''exploded''), ganda (''beautiful'')
Affixed (''Maylapi'')
These consist of the root word and one or more affixes.
Examples: tinanong (''questioned''), kumakain (''eating''), nagmamahal (''loving'')
Repeating (''Inuulit'')
These are formed by the repetition of the whole or part of the root word.
Examples: pulang-pula (''really red''), puting-puti (''really white''), araw-araw (''every day''), gabi-gabi (''every night'')
Compound (''Tambalan'')
These are compound words.
Examples: ngiting-aso (''literally: "dog smile", meaning: "big smile"''), balat-sibuyas (''literally: "onion-skinned", meaning: "crybaby"'')
Types
Descriptive (''Panlarawan'')
This states the size, color, form, smell, sound, texture, taste, and shape.
Examples: munti (''little''), biluhaba (''oval''), matamis (''sweet''), malubha (''serious'')
Proper (''Pantangi'')
This states a specific noun. This consists of a common noun and a proper noun. The proper noun (that starts with a capital letter) is modifying the type of common noun.
Examples: wikang Ingles (''English language''), kulturang Espanyol (''Spanish culture''), pagkaing Iloko (''Ilokano food'')
''Pamilang''
This states the number, how many, or a position in order. This has multiple types.
* Sequence (''Panunuran'') – This states the position in an order. Examples: ikatlo (''third''), una (''first''), pangalawa (''second'')
* Quantitative (''Patakaran'') – This states the actual number. Examples: isa (''one''), apat (''four''), limang libo (''five thousand'')
* Fraction (''Pamahagi'') – This states a part of a whole. Examples: kalahati (''half''), limang-kawalo (''five-eights''), sangkapat (''fourth'')
* Monetary (''Pahalaga'') – This states a price (equivalent to money) of a thing or any bought item. Examples: piso (''one peso''), limampung sentimo (''fifty centavoes''), sandaang piso (''one hundred pesos'')
* Collective (''Palansak'') – This states a group of people or things. This identifies the number that forms that group. Examples: dalawahan (''by two''), sampu-sampu (''by ten''), animan (''by six'')
* ''Patakda'' – This states the exact and actual number. This cannot be added or subtracted. Examples: iisa (''only one''), dadalawa (''only two''), lilima (''only five'')
Degrees of Comparison
Just like English adjectives, Tagalog adjectives have 3 degrees of comparison.
Positive (''Lantay'')
This only compares one noun/pronoun.
Example: maliit (''small''), kupas (''peeled''), mataba (''fat'')
Comparative (''Pahambing'')
This is used when 2 nouns/pronouns are being compared. This has multiple types.
* Similar (''Magkatulad'') – This is the comparison when the traits compared are fair. Usually, the prefixes ga-, sing-/kasing-, and magsing-/magkasing- are used.
* Dissimilar (''Di-magkatulad'') – This is the comparison if it shows the idea of disallowance, rejection or opposition.
** ''Palamang'' – the thing that is being compared has a positive trait. The words "higit", "lalo", "mas", "di-hamak" and others are used.
** ''Pasahol'' – the thing that is being compared has a negative trait. The words "di-gaano", "di-gasino", "di-masyado" and others are used.
Superlative (''Pasukdol'')
This is the highest degree of comparison. This can be positive or negative. The prefix "pinaka" and the words "sobra", "ubod", "tunay", "talaga", "saksakan", and "hari ng ___" are used, as well as the repetition of the adjective.
Degrees of Description
These degrees have no comparison.
''Lantay''
This is when the simple/plain form of the adjective is being used for description.
Examples: matalino (''smart''), palatawa (''risible'')
''Katamtaman''
This is when the adjective is accompanied by the words "medyo", "nang kaunti", "nang bahagya" or the repetition of the root word or the first two syllables of the root word.
Examples: medyo mataba (''somewhat fat''), malakas nang bahagya (''slightly strong''), malakas-lakas (''somewhat strong''), matabang nang kaunti (''a little bit insipid'')
''Masidhi''
This is when the adjective is accompanied by the words "napaka", "ubod ng", "saksakan ng", "talagang", "sobrang", "masyadong" or the repetition of the whole adjective. The description in this degree is intense.
Examples: napakalakas (''so strong''), ubod ng bait (''really kind''), talagang mabango (''truly fragrant''), sobrang makinis (''oversmooth'')
Number
There are rules that are followed when forming adjectives that use the prefix "ma-".
Singular (''Isahan'')
When the adjective is describing only one noun/pronoun, "ma-" and the root word is used.
Examples: ''
ma''saya (''happy''), ''
ma''lungkot (''sad'')
Plural (''Maramihan'')
When the adjective is describing two or more noun/pronoun, "ma-" is used and the first syllable or first two letters of the root word is repeated.
Examples: ''
ma''
liliit (''small''), ''
ma''
gaganda (''beautiful'')
The word "mga" is not needed if the noun/pronoun is right next to the adjective.
Example: Ang
''ma''gagandang damit ay kasya kina Erica at Bel. (''The beautiful clothes can fit to Erica and Bel.'')
Ligature
The Ligature ''(pang-angkop)'' connects/links modifiers (like adjectives and adverbs) and the words that they are modifying. It has two
allomorph
In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term ''allomorph'' describes the realization of phonological variations for a specif ...
s:
;''na''
This is used if the preceding word is ending on a consonant except ''n''. It is not combined with the preceding word but separated, appearing between the modifier and the word it modifies.
Example: ('loving person')
;''-ng''
This suffixed allomorph is used if the preceding word is ending on a vowel or ''n''; in the latter case, the final ''n'' is lost and replaced by the suffix:
Examples: ('good creation of God'); (< ) ('ideal citizen')
Conjunctions
Tagalog uses numerous conjunctions, and may belong to one of these possible functions:
# separate non-contrasting ideas (e.g. ''at'' "and")
# separate contrasting ideas (e.g. ''ngunit'' "but")
# give explanations (e.g. ''kung'' "if")
# provide circumstances (e.g. ''kapag'' "when")
# indicate similarities (e.g. ''kung saan'' "where")
# provide reasons (e.g ''dahil'' "because")
# indicate endings (e.g. ''upang'' "
n orderto")
Modifiers
Modifiers alter, qualify, clarify, or limit other elements in a sentence structure. They are optional grammatical elements but they change the meaning of the element they are modifying in particular ways. Examples of modifiers are adjectives (modifies nouns), adjectival clauses, adverbs (modifies verbs), and adverbial clauses. Nouns can also modify other nouns. In Tagalog, word categories are fluid: A word can sometimes be an adverb or an adjective depending on the word it modifies. If the word being modified is a noun, then the modifier is an adjective, if the word being modified is a verb, then it is an adverb. For example, the word ''
'mabilis'
'' means 'fast' in English. The Tagalog word ''
'mabilis'
'' can be used to describe nouns like ''
'koneho'
'' ('rabbit') in ''
'konehong mabilis'
'' ('quick rabbit'). In that phrase, ''
'mabilis was used as an adjective. The same word can be used to describe verbs, one can say 'tumakbong mabilis' which means 'quickly ran'. In that phrase, 'mabilis' was used as an adverb. The Tagalog word for 'rabbit' is 'koneho' and 'ran' is 'tumakbo' but they showed up in the phrases as 'koneho-ng' and 'tumakbo-ng'. Tagalog uses something called a "linker" that always surfaces in the context of modification. Modification only occurs when a linker is present. Tagalog has the linkers ''-ng'' and ''na.'' In the examples mentioned, the linker -
''ng
'' was used because the word before the linker ends in a vowel. The second linker,
''na
''is used everywhere else (the
''na
'' used in modification is not the same as the adverb
''na
'' which means 'now' or 'already'). Seeing the enclitics
''-ng
''and
''na'' are good indications that there is modification in the clause. These linkers can appear before or after the modifier.
The following table summarizes the distribution of the linker:
Sequence of modifiers in a noun phrase
The following tables show a possible word order of a noun phrase containing a modifier. Since word order is flexible in Tagalog, there are other possible ways in which one could say these phrases. To read more on Tagalog word order, head to the Word Order section.
Enclitic particles
Tagalog has enclitic particles that have important information conveying different nuances in meaning. Below is a list of Tagalog's enclitic particles.
#''na'' and ''pa''
#*''na'': now, already
#*''pa'': still, else, in addition, yet
#''man'', ''kahit'': even, even if, even though
#''bagamán'': although
#''ngâ'': indeed; used to affirm or to emphasise. Also softens imperatives.
#''din'' (after a vowel: ''rin''): too, also
#''lamang'' (contracted as ''lang''): limiting particle; only or just
#''daw'' (after a vowel: ''raw''): a reporting particle that indicates the preceding information as secondhand; they say, he said, reportedly, supposedly, etc.
#''pô'' (less respectful form: ''hô''): marker indicating politeness.
#''ba'': used to end yes-and-no questions and optionally in other types of questions, similar to Japanese ''-ka'' and Chinese ''ma'' (嗎), but not entirely.
#''muna'': for now, for a minute, and yet (when answering in the negative).
#''namán'': used in making contrasts; softens requests; emphasis
#''kasí'': expresses cause; because
#''kayâ'': expresses wonder; I wonder; perhaps (we should do something); also optionally used in yes-and-no questions and other forms of questions
#''palá'': expresses that the speaker has realized or suddenly remembered something; realization particle; apparently
#''yatà'': expresses uncertainty; probably, perhaps, seems
#''tulóy'': used in cause and effect; as a result
#''sana'': expresses hope, unrealized condition (with the verb in completed aspect), used in
conditional sentence
Conditional sentences are natural language sentences that express that one thing is contingent on something else, e.g. "If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled." They are so called because the impact of the main clause of the sentence is ''cond ...
s.
The order listed above is the order in which the particles follow if they are used in conjunction with each other. A more concise list of the orders of monosyllabic particles from Rubino (2002) is given below.
#na / pa
#ngâ
#din ~ rin
#daw ~ raw
#pô / hô
#ba
The particles ''na'' and ''pa'' cannot be used in conjunction with each other as well as ''pô'' and ''hô''.
:*''Dumatíng na raw palá ang lola mo.''
::"Oh yes, your grandmother has apparently arrived."
:*''Palitán mo na rin.''
::"Do change it as well."
Note for "daw/raw and rin/din": If the preceding letter is a consonant except y and w, the letter d is used in any word, vice versa for r e.g., ''pagdárasal'', instead of ''pagdádasal''
Although in everyday speech, this rule is often ignored.
:*''Walâ pa yatang asawa ang kapatíd niyá.''
::"Perhaps his brother still hasn’t a wife."
:*''Itó lang kayâ ang ibibigáy nilá sa amin?''
::"I wonder, is the only thing that they'll be giving us?"
:*''Nag-aral ka na ba ng wikang Kastilà?''
::"Have you already studied the Spanish language?"
:*''Batà pa kasí.''
::"He's still young, is why."
:*''Pakisulat mo ngâ muna ang iyóng pangalan dito.''
::"Please, do write your name here first."
The words ''daw'' and ''raw'', which mean “he said”/“she said”/“they said”, are sometimes joined to the real translations of “he said”/”she said”, which is ''sabi niyá'', and “they said”, which is ''sabi nilá''. They are also joined to the Tagalog of “you said”, which is ''sabi mo''. But this time, both ''daw'' and ''raw'' mean “supposedly/reportedly”.
:*''Sabi raw niyá. / Sabi daw niyá.''
::"He/she supposedly said."
:*''Sabi raw nilá. / Sabi daw nilá''.
::"They supposedly said."
:*''Sabi mo raw. / Sabi mo daw.''
::"You supposedly said."
Although the word ''kasí'' is a native Tagalog word for “because” and not slang, it is still not used in formal writing. The Tagalog word for this is ''sapagká’t'' or ''sapagkát.'' Thus, the formal form of ''Batà pa kasí'' is ''Sapagká’t batà pa'' or ''Sapagkát batà pa.'' This is sometimes shortened to ''pagká’t'' or ''pagkát'', so ''Sapagká’t batà pa'' is also written as ''Pagká’t batà pa'' or ''Pagkát batà pa.'' In both formal and everyday writing and speech, ''dahil sa'' (the oblique form of ''kasí''; thus, its exact translation is “because of”) is also synonymous to ''sapagká’t'' (''sapagkát''), so the substitute of ''Sapagká’t batà pa'' for ''Batà pa kasí'' is ''Dahil sa batà pa.'' Most of the time in speech and writing (mostly every day and sometimes formal), ''dahil sa'' as the Tagalog of “because” is reduced to ''dahil'', so ''Dahil sa batà pa'' is spoken simply as ''Dahil batà pa.''
Word order
Tagalog has a flexible word order compared to English. While the verb always remains in the initial position, the order of noun phrase complements that follows is flexible. An example provided by Schacter and Otanes can be seen in (1).
The flexibility of Tagalog word order can be seen in (2). There are six different ways of saying 'The man gave the woman a book.' in Tagalog. The following five sentences, along with the sentence from (1), include the same grammatical components and are all grammatical and identical in meaning but have different orders.
The principles in (3) help to determine the ordering of possible noun phrase complements. In a basic clause where the patient takes the nominative case, principles (i) and (ii) requires the actor to precede the patient. In example (4a), the patient, ''
'liham (letter) takes the nominative case and satisfies principles (i) and (ii). The example in (4b) shows that the opposite ordering of the agent and patient does not result in an ungrammatical sentence but rather an unnatural one in Tagalog.
In example (5), the verb, ''
'binihag','' (captivated) is marked for active voice and results in the actor ('
''Kuya Louis'
'') to take the nominative case. Example (5) doesn't satisfy principles (i) and (ii). That is, principle (i) requires the Actor ('
''Kuya Louis'
'') to precede all other arguments. However, since the Actor also takes the nominative case, principle (ii) requires the phrase '
''Kuya Louis to come last. The preferred order of agent and patient in Tagalog active clauses is still being debated. Therefore, we can assume that there are two "unmarked" word orders: VSO or VOS.
A change in word order and trigger generally corresponds to a change in definiteness ("the" vs "a") in English. Example (6) shows a change in word order, triggered by the indirect, "ng." Example (7) shows a change in word order, triggered by the direct, ''"ang."''
Word order may be inverted (referred to in Tagalog grammar as ''Kabalikang Anyo'') by way of the inversion marker '
''ay'' ' ('' ’y'' after vowels in informal speech, not usually used in writing). Contrary to popular belief, this is not the
copula 'to be' as '
''ay'
'' does not behave as an existential marker in an SVO structure and an inverted form VSO does not require ''
'ay since the existentiality is denoted by case marking. A slight, but optional, pause in speech or a comma in writing may replace the inversion marker. This construction is often viewed by native speakers as formal or literary.
In this construction (ay-inversion), the ''
'ay appears between the fronted constituent and the remainder of the clause. The fronted constituent in the construction includes locations and adverbs. Example (8)- (11) shows the inverted form of the sentences in the previous examples above.
In (8) and (11), the fronted constituent is the subject. On the other hand, in (9), the fronted constituent is the object. Another example of a fronted constituent in Tagalog is, ''wh-phrases.'' Wh-phrases include interrogative questions that begin with: who, what, where, when, why, and how. In Tagalog, wh-phrases occur to the left of the clause. For example, in the sentence, 'Who are you?'
'', ''which translates to, '
''Sino ka? occurs to the left of the clause. The syntactic tree of this sentence is found in (12a). As we can see in (12a), the complementizer position is null. However, in the case where an overt complementizer is present, Sabbagh (2014) proposes that the wh-phrase lowers from Spec, CP, and adjoins to TP when C is overt (12b). The operation in (12b) is known as, WhP lowering.
![Example 12a](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Example_12a.png)
This operation of lowering can also be applied in sentences to account for the verb-initial word order in Tagalog. The subject-lowering analysis states that "the subject lowers from Spec, TP and adjoins to a projection dominated by TP.".
[Sabbagh (2014), 70 (55)] If we use the example from (2),
Nagbigay ang lalaki ng libro sa babae. and applied subject lowering, we would see the syntax tree in (13a).If we lowered the subject, ang lalaki, to an intermediate position within VP, we would be able to achieve a VOS word order and still satisfy subject lowering.
This can be seen in (13b).
![Syntax tree 3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Syntax_tree_3.png)
Lowering is motivated by a prosodic constraint called, WeakStart. This constraint is largely based on the
phonological hierarchy
The phonological hierarchy describes a series of increasingly smaller regions of a phonological utterance, each nested within the next highest region. Different research traditions make use of slightly different hierarchies. For instance, there is ...
. This constraint requires the first phonological element within a phonological domain to be lower on the prosodic hierarchy than elements that follow it, within the same domain.
[Sabbagh (2014), 59]
Negation
There are three negation words: ''hindî'', ''walâ'', and ''huwág''.
Hindî negates verbs and equations. It is sometimes contracted to ''‘dî''.
*''Hindî akó magtatrabaho bukas.''
:"I will not work tomorrow."
*''Hindî mayaman ang babae.''
:"The woman is not rich."
Walâ is the opposite of ''may'' and ''mayroón'' ("there is").
*''Walâ akóng pera.''
*''Akó ay walang pera.''
:"I do not have money."
*''Waláng libró sa loób ng bahay niyá.''
:"There are no books in his house."
Huwág is used in expressing negative commands. It can be used for the infinitive and the future aspect. It is contracted as ''‘wag''.
*''Huwág kang umiyák.''
:"Do not cry."
*''Huwág kayóng tumakbó rito.''
:"Do not run here."
There are two (or more) special negative forms for common verbs:
*''Gustó/Ibig/Nais ko nang kumain.''
:"I would like to eat now." (Positive)
*''Ayaw ko pang kumain.''
:"I don't want to eat yet." (Negative)
Interrogative words
Tagalog's interrogative words are: ''alín'', ''anó'', ''bákit'', ''gaáno'', ''ilán'', ''kailán'', ''kaníno'', ''kumustá'', ''magkáno'', ''nakaníno'', ''nasaán'', ''níno'', ''paáno'', ''saán'', and ''síno''. With the exceptions of ''bakit'', ''kamustá'', and ''nasaán'', all of the interrogative words have optional plural forms which are formed by reduplication. They are used when the person who is asking the question anticipates a plural answer and can be called wh-phrases. The syntactic position of these types of phrases can be seen in
(12a).
Gaano (from ''ga-'' + ''anó'') means ''how'' but is used in inquiring about the quality of an adjective or an adverb. The rootword of the modifier is prefixed with ''ga-'' in this construction (16a).Ilán means ''how many'' (16b). Kumustá is used to inquire how something is (are).(16c) It is frequently used as a greeting meaning ''How are you?'' It is derived from the Spanish ''¿cómo está?''. Magkano (from ''mag-'' + ''gaano'') means ''how much'' and is usually used in inquiring the price of something (16d). Paano (from ''pa-'' + ''anó'') is used in asking ''how'' something is done or happened (16e).
Nino (from ''ni'' + ''anó'') means ''who'', ''whose'', and ''whom'' (18a). It is the indirect and genitive form of ''sino''. Sino (from ''si'' + ''anó'') means ''who'' and ''whom'' and it is in the direct form (18b). Kanino (from ''kay'' + ''anó'') means ''whom'' or ''whose'' (18c). It is the oblique form of ''sino'' (who).
See also
*
Abakada alphabet
The Abakada alphabet was an "indigenized" Latin alphabet adopted for the Tagalog-based Filipino national language in 1940.
The alphabet, which contains 20 letters, was introduced in the grammar book developed by Lope K. Santos for the newly-d ...
*
Commission on the Filipino Language
, logo =
, logo_width =
, logo_caption =
, seal = Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (KWF).svg
, seal_width =
, seal_caption =
, formed = 1937 (first formation)1991 (reformed)
, preceding1 ...
*
Filipino alphabet
The modern Filipino alphabet ( fil, makabagong alpabetong Filipino), otherwise known as the Filipino alphabet ( fil, alpabetong Filipino), is the alphabet of the Filipino language, the official national language and one of the two official langua ...
*
Filipino orthography
Filipino orthography ( fil, Ortograpiyang Filipino) specifies the correct use of the writing system of the Filipino language, the national and co-official language of the Philippines.
In 2013, the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino released the ''Ort ...
*
Tagalog phonology
This article deals with current phonology and phonetics and with historical developments of the phonology of the Tagalog language, including variants.
Tagalog has allophones, so it is important here to distinguish phonemes (written in slashes / ...
*
Old Tagalog
Old Tagalog, also known as Old Filipino ( tl, Lumang Tagalog; Baybayin: pre-virama: , post-virama rus kudlit ; post-virama amudpod ), is the earliest form of the Tagalog language during the Classical period. It is the primary language of pre- ...
Notes
Bibliography
* Kroeger, P. R. (1991). Phrase structure and grammatical relations in Tagalog
* Ramos, T. (1971). Tagalog Structures. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. p. 126.
* Rubino, C. (2002). Tagalog-English, English-Tagalog dictionary / Taláhuluganang Pilipino-Ingglés, Ingglés-Pilipino Taláhuluganang. Conshohocken, PA: Hippocrene Books.
* Sabbagh, J. (2014). Word order and Prosodic‐Structure constraints in Tagalog. Syntax, 17(1), 40–89.
* Sabbagh, J. (2011). Adjectival passives and the structure of VP in Tagalog. ''Lingua, 121'', 1424–1452.
* Scontras, G. & Nicolae A. (2014). Saturating syntax: Linkers and modification in Tagalog. ''Lingua, 149'', 17–33.
*''Baybayin: Paglalayag sa Wika at Panitikan 8'' by Remedios Infantado pp. 133–134, 169
*''Bagong Likha: Wika at Pagbasa 4'', by Ester V. Raflores , pp. 239, 252–253, 267–268, 283, 326–327, 341–342
*''Pinagyamang Pluma 9,'' by Ailene G. Baisa-Julian, Mary Grace G. del Rosario, Nestor S. Lontoc , p. 86, 383
mga-uri-ng-pang-uri.pdf ''samutsamot.files.wordpress.com''. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
* ''Baybayin: Paglalayag sa Wika at Panitikan 7'' by Ramilito Correa p. 19
External links
Tagalog grammarFree and comprehensive Tagalog grammar reference
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