Square root of a 2 by 2 matrix
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A square root of a 2×2 matrix ''M'' is another 2×2 matrix ''R'' such that ''M'' = ''R''2, where ''R''2 stands for the
matrix product In mathematics, particularly in linear algebra, matrix multiplication is a binary operation that produces a matrix from two matrices. For matrix multiplication, the number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the number of rows in the s ...
of ''R'' with itself. In general, there can be zero, two, four, or even an infinitude of square-root matrices. In many cases, such a matrix ''R'' can be obtained by an explicit formula. Square roots that are not the all-zeros matrix come in pairs: if ''R'' is a square root of ''M'', then −''R'' is also a square root of ''M'', since (−''R'')(−''R'') = (−1)(−1)(''RR'') = ''R''2 = ''M''.
A 2×2 matrix with two distinct nonzero
eigenvalue In linear algebra, an eigenvector () or characteristic vector of a linear transformation is a nonzero vector that changes at most by a scalar factor when that linear transformation is applied to it. The corresponding eigenvalue, often denoted ...
s has four square roots. A
positive-definite matrix In mathematics, a symmetric matrix M with real entries is positive-definite if the real number z^\textsfMz is positive for every nonzero real column vector z, where z^\textsf is the transpose of More generally, a Hermitian matrix (that is, a ...
has precisely one positive-definite square root.


A general formula

The following is a general formula that applies to almost any 2 × 2 matrix. Let the given matrix be M = \begin A & B \\ C & D \end, where ''A'', ''B'', ''C'', and ''D'' may be real or complex numbers. Furthermore, let ''τ'' = ''A'' + ''D'' be the
trace Trace may refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * ''Trace'' (Son Volt album), 1995 * ''Trace'' (Died Pretty album), 1993 * Trace (band), a Dutch progressive rock band * ''The Trace'' (album) Other uses in arts and entertainment * ''Trace'' ...
of ''M'', and ''δ'' = ''AD'' − ''BC'' be its
determinant In mathematics, the determinant is a scalar value that is a function of the entries of a square matrix. It characterizes some properties of the matrix and the linear map represented by the matrix. In particular, the determinant is nonzero if a ...
. Let ''s'' be such that ''s''2 = ''δ'', and ''t'' be such that ''t''2 = ''τ'' + ''2s''. That is, s = \pm\sqrt, \qquad t = \pm\sqrt. Then, if ''t'' ≠ 0, a square root of ''M'' is R = \frac\begin A + s & B \\ C & D + s \end = \frac\left(M + sI\right). Indeed, the square of ''R'' is \begin R^2 &= \frac\begin A^2 + B C + 2 s A + s^2 & A B + B D + 2 s B \\ C A + D C + 2 s C & C B + D^2 + 2 s D + s^2 \end \\ ex &= \frac\begin A^2 + B C + 2 s A + A D - BC & A B + B D + 2 s B \\ A C + C D + 2 s C & B C + D^2 + 2 s D + A D - B C \end \\ ex &= \frac\begin A(A + D + 2 s) & B(A + D + 2 s) \\ C(A + D + 2 s) & D(A + D + 2 s) \end = M. \end Note that ''R'' may have complex entries even if ''M'' is a real matrix; this will be the case, in particular, if the determinant ''δ'' is negative. The general case of this formula is when ''δ'' is nonzero, and ''τ''2 ≠ 4''δ'', in which case ''s'' is nonzero, and ''t'' is nonzero for each choice of sign of ''s''. Then the formula above will provide four distinct square roots ''R'', one for each choice of signs for ''s'' and ''t''.


Special cases of the formula

If the determinant ''δ'' is zero, but the trace ''τ'' is nonzero, the general formula above will give only two distinct solutions, corresponding to the two signs of ''t''. Namely, R = \pm\frac\begin A & B \\ C & D \end = \pm\frac M, where ''t'' is any square root of the trace ''τ''. The formula also gives only two distinct solutions if ''δ'' is nonzero, and ''τ''2 = 4''δ'' (the case of duplicate
eigenvalue In linear algebra, an eigenvector () or characteristic vector of a linear transformation is a nonzero vector that changes at most by a scalar factor when that linear transformation is applied to it. The corresponding eigenvalue, often denoted ...
s), in which case one of the choices for ''s'' will make the denominator ''t'' be zero. In that case, the two roots are R = \pm\frac\begin A + s & B \\ C & D + s \end = \pm\frac \left(M + s I \right), where ''s'' is the square root of ''δ'' that makes ''τ'' − 2''s'' nonzero, and ''t'' is any square root of ''τ'' − 2''s''. The formula above fails completely if ''δ'' and ''τ'' are both zero; that is, if ''D'' = −''A'', and ''A''2 = −''BC'', so that both the trace and the determinant of the matrix are zero. In this case, if ''M'' is the null matrix (with ''A'' = ''B'' = ''C'' = ''D'' = 0), then the null matrix is also a square root of ''M'', as is any matrix R = \begin 0 & 0 \\ c & 0 \end \quad \text \quad R = \begin 0 & b \\ 0 & 0 \end, where ''b'' and ''c'' are arbitrary real or complex values. Otherwise ''M'' has no square root.


Formulas for special matrices


Idempotent matrix

If ''M'' is an
idempotent matrix In linear algebra, an idempotent matrix is a matrix which, when multiplied by itself, yields itself. That is, the matrix A is idempotent if and only if A^2 = A. For this product A^2 to be defined, A must necessarily be a square matrix. Viewed thi ...
, meaning that ''MM'' = ''M'', then if it is not the identity matrix, its determinant is zero, and its trace equals its
rank Rank is the relative position, value, worth, complexity, power, importance, authority, level, etc. of a person or object within a ranking, such as: Level or position in a hierarchical organization * Academic rank * Diplomatic rank * Hierarchy * ...
, which (excluding the zero matrix) is 1. Then the above formula has ''s'' = 0 and ''τ'' = 1, giving ''M'' and −''M'' as two square roots of ''M''.


Exponential matrix

If the matrix ''M'' can be expressed as real multiple of the exponent of some matrix ''A'', M = r \exp(A), then two of its square roots are \pm\sqrt\exp\left(\tfracA\right). In this case the square root is real.


Diagonal matrix

If ''M'' is diagonal (that is, ''B'' = ''C'' = 0), one can use the simplified formula R = \begin a & 0 \\ 0 & d \end, where ''a'' = ±√''A'', and ''d'' = ±√''D''. This, for the various sign choices, gives four, two, or one distinct matrices, if none of, only one of, or both ''A'' and ''D'' are zero, respectively.


Identity matrix

Because it has duplicate
eigenvalue In linear algebra, an eigenvector () or characteristic vector of a linear transformation is a nonzero vector that changes at most by a scalar factor when that linear transformation is applied to it. The corresponding eigenvalue, often denoted ...
s, the 2×2 identity matrix \left(\begin 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end\right) has infinitely many
symmetric Symmetry (from grc, συμμετρία "agreement in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement") in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, "symmetry" has a more precise definiti ...
rational square roots given by \frac \begin s & r\\ r & -s\end \text \begin \pm 1 & 0\\ 0 & \pm 1\end, where are any complex numbers such that r^2 + s^2 = t^2.


Matrix with one off-diagonal zero

If ''B'' is zero, but ''A'' and ''D'' are not both zero, one can use R = \begin a & 0 \\ \frac & d \end. This formula will provide two solutions if ''A'' = ''D'' or ''A'' = 0 or ''D'' = 0, and four otherwise. A similar formula can be used when ''C'' is zero, but ''A'' and ''D'' are not both zero.


References

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{{citation , last1 = Harkin , first1 = Anthony A. , last2 = Harkin , first2 = Joseph B. , doi = 10.1080/0025570X.2004.11953236 , issue = 2 , journal =
Mathematics Magazine ''Mathematics Magazine'' is a refereed bimonthly publication of the Mathematical Association of America. Its intended audience is teachers of collegiate mathematics, especially at the junior/senior level, and their students. It is explicitly a j ...
, jstor = 3219099 , mr = 1573734 , pages = 118–129 , title = Geometry of generalized complex numbers , url = https://people.rit.edu/harkin/research/articles/generalized_complex_numbers.pdf , volume = 77 , year = 2004
{{citation , last = Mitchell , first = Douglas W. , date = November 2003 , doi = 10.1017/S0025557200173723 , issue = 510 , journal =
The Mathematical Gazette ''The Mathematical Gazette'' is an academic journal of mathematics education, published three times yearly, that publishes "articles about the teaching and learning of mathematics with a focus on the 15–20 age range and expositions of attractive ...
, jstor = 3621289 , pages = 499–500 , title = 87.57 Using Pythagorean triples to generate square roots of I_2 , volume = 87
Matrices