Senpai And Kōhai
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Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, ''senpai'' (, "senior") and ''kōhai'' (, "junior") represent an informal hierarchical interpersonal relationship found in organizations, associations, clubs, businesses, and schools. The concept has its roots in
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
teaching, but it has developed a distinguished Japanese style, ultimately becoming part of
Japanese culture The culture of Japan has changed greatly over the millennia, from the country's prehistoric Jōmon period, to its contemporary modern culture, which absorbs influences from Asia and other regions of the world. Historical overview The ance ...
.


Concept

The relationship is an interdependent one, as a ''senpai'' requires a ''kōhai'' and vice versa, and establishes a bond determined by the date of entry into an organization. ''Senpai'' refers to the member of higher experience, hierarchy, level, or age in the organization who offers assistance, friendship, and counsel to a new or inexperienced member, known as the ''kōhai'', who must demonstrate gratitude, respect, and occasionally personal loyalty. The ''kōhai'' defers to the ''senpai''s seniority and experience, and speaks to the ''senpai'' using honorific language. The ''senpai'' acts at the same time as a friend. This relation is similar to the interpersonal relation between tutor and tutored in Eastern culture, but differs in that the ''senpai'' and ''kōhai'' must work in the same organization. The relation originates in
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
teaching, as well as the morals and ethics that have arrived in Japan from ancient China and have spread throughout various aspects of Japanese philosophy. The ''senpai–kōhai'' relation is a vertical hierarchy (like a father–son relation) that emphasizes respect for authority, for the
chain of command A command hierarchy is a group of people who carry out orders based on others' authority within the group. It can be viewed as part of a power structure, in which it is usually seen as the most vulnerable and also the most powerful part. Milit ...
, and for one's elders, eliminating all forms of internal competition and reinforcing the unity of the organization. Over time this mechanism has allowed the transfer of experience and knowledge, as well as the expansion of acquaintances and the building of
institutional memory Institutional memory is a collective set of facts, concepts, experiences and knowledge held by a group of people. Concept Institutional memory has been defined as "the stored knowledge within the organization." Within any organization, tools ...
. It also allows the development of beneficial experiences between both, as the ''kōhai'' benefits from the ''senpai''s knowledge and the ''senpai'' learns new experiences from the ''kōhai'' by way of developing a sense of responsibility. This comradeship does not imply friendship; a ''senpai'' and ''kōhai'' may become friends, but such is not an expectation. The
Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...
terms ''seonbae'' and ''hubae'' are written with the same
Chinese characters Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...
and indicate a similar senior–junior relationship. Both the Japanese and Korean terms are based on the Chinese honorifics ''xianbei'' (先輩/先辈) and ''houbei'' (後輩/后辈), written in the same
Chinese characters Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...
. Similar concept exists in the Chinese-speaking world, though the terms vary depending on the context. In business, the terms are usually ''qiánbèi'' (前輩/前辈) for seniors and ''hòubèi'' (後輩/后辈) for juniors. For students, the term is usually xuézhǎng/xuéjiě (學長/姐, more common in Taiwan) or shīxiōng/shījiě (师兄/姐, Mainland China) for male and female senpai, respectively, and xuédì/xuémèi (學弟/妹, Taiwan) or shīdì/shīmèi (师弟/妹, Mainland China) for male and female kohai, respectively. The student terms are also used in the Taiwanese military and the police system, though the existence of this seniority system in parallel to the ranks is criticized.


History

The ''senpai–kōhai'' system is deeply rooted in
Japanese history The first human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago have been traced to prehistoric times around 30,000 BC. The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi period in the first millennium BC when new inventi ...
. Three elements have had a significant impact on its development:
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
, the traditional Japanese family system, and the Civil Code of 1898. Confucianism arrived from China between the 6th and 9th centuries, but the derived line of thought that brought about deep social changes in Japan was
Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Wa ...
, which became the official doctrine of the
Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 ''Tokugawa bakufu''), also known as the , was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Tokugawa-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia ...
(1603–1867). The precepts of loyalty and
filial piety In Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, and Daoist ethics, filial piety (, ''xiào'') (Latin: pietas) is a virtue of respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian ''Classic of Filial Piety'', thought to be written around the late W ...
as
tribute A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conqu ...
( ') dominated the Japanese at the time, as respect for elders and ancestor worship that Chinese Confucianism taught were well accepted by the Japanese, and these influences have spread throughout daily life. Like other Chinese influences, the Japanese adopted these ideas selectively and in their own manner, so that the "loyalty" in Confucianism was taken as loyalty to a
feudal lord An overlord in the Kingdom of England, English Feudalism in England, feudal system was a lord of the manor, lord of a manor who had Subinfeudation, subinfeudated a particular Manorialism, manor, Estate in land, estate or fief, fee, to a Leaseho ...
or the
Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
. The Japanese family system ( ') was also regulated by Confucian codes of conduct and had an influence on the establishment of the ''senpai–kōhai'' relation. In this family system the father, as male head, had absolute power over the family and the eldest son inherited the family property. The father had power because he was the one to receive an education and was seen to have superior ethical knowledge. Since reverence for superiors was considered a virtue in Japanese society, the wife and children had to obey it. In addition to the hereditary system, only the eldest son could receive his father's possessions, and neither the eldest daughter nor the younger children received anything from him. The last factor influencing the ''senpai–kōhai'' system was the Civil Code of 1898, which strengthened the rules of privilege of
seniority Seniority is the state of being older or placed in a higher position of status relative to another individual, group, or organization. For example, one employee may be senior to another either by role or rank (such as a CEO vice a manager), or by ...
and reinforced the traditional family system, giving clear definitions of hierarchical values within the family. This was called ''koshusei'' (, "family-head system"), in which the head of the household had the right to command his family and the eldest son inherited that position. These statutes were abolished in 1947, after the
surrender of Japan The surrender of the Empire of Japan in World War II was announced by Emperor Hirohito on 15 August and formally signed on 2 September 1945, bringing the war's hostilities to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy ...
at the end of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. These ideals nevertheless remained during the following years as a psychological influence in Japanese society.


Terminology

The seniority rules are reflected in various grammatical rules in the
Japanese language is spoken natively by about 128 million people, primarily by Japanese people and primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language. Japanese belongs to the Japonic or Japanese- Ryukyuan language family. There have been ma ...
. A person who speaks respectfully to a superior uses honorific language ( '), which is divided into three categories: * ' (, "respectful language"): Used to denote respect towards a superior with or of whom one speaks, including the actions, objects, characteristics, and people related to this person. * ' (, "humble language"): In contrast to ''sonkeigo'', with ''kenjōgo'' the speaker shows respect to a superior by lowering or deprecating him or herself. * ' (, "polite language"): Differs from the other two in that the deference is afforded only to the person being addressed, rather than those being spoken about. Use of the verb ''desu'' ("to be") and the verb ending ''-masu'' are examples of ''teineigo''. ''Sonkeigo'' and ''kenjōgo'' have expressions (verbs, nouns, and special prefixes) particular to the type of language; for example, the ordinary Japanese verb for "to do" is ''suru'', but in ''sonkeigo'' is ''nasaru'' and in ''kenjōgo'' is ''itasu''. Another rule in the hierarchical relation is the use of honorific suffixes of address. A ''senpai'' addresses a ''kōhai'' with the suffix ''-kun'' after the ''kōhai''s given name or surname, regardless if the ''kōhai'' is male or female. A ''kōhai'' similarly addresses a ''senpai'' with the suffix ''-senpai'' or ''-san''; it is extremely unusual for a ''kōhai'' to refer to a ''senpai'' with the suffix ''-sama'', which indicates the highest level of respect to the person spoken to.


Prevalence

One place the ''senpai–kōhai'' relation applies to its greatest extent in Japan is in schools. For example, in junior and senior high schools (especially in school clubs) third-year students (who are the oldest) demonstrate great power as ''senpai''. It is common in school sports clubs for new ''kōhai'' to have to perform basic tasks such as retrieving balls, cleaning playing fields, taking care of equipment, and even wash elder students' clothes. They must also bow to or salute their ''senpai'' when congratulated, and ''senpai'' may punish ''kōhai'' or treat them severely. The main reason for these humble actions is that it is believed that team members can become good players only if they are submissive, obedient, and follow the orders of the trainer or captain, and thus become a humble, responsible, and cooperative citizen in the future. Relations in Japanese schools also place a stronger emphasis on the age than on the abilities of students. The rules of superiority between a ''senpai'' and a ''kōhai'' are analogous to the teacher–student relation, in which the age and experience of the teacher must be respected and never questioned. The ''senpai–kōhai'' relation is weaker in universities, as students of a variety of ages attend the same classes; students show respect to older members primarily through polite language (). Vertical seniority rules nevertheless prevail between teachers based on academic rank and experience. The ''senpai–kōhai'' system also prevails in Japanese businesses. The social environment in Japanese businesses is regulated by two standards: the system of superiority and the system of
permanent employment Permanent employees work for an employer and are paid directly by that employer. Permanent employees do not have a predetermined end date to employment. In addition to their wages, they often receive benefits like subsidized health care, paid vac ...
. The status, salary, and position of employees depend heavily of seniority, and veteran employees generally take the highest positions and receive higher salaries than their subordinates. Until the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, employment was guaranteed for life and thus such employees did not have to worry about losing their positions. The ''senpai–kōhai'' relation is a cornerstone in interpersonal relations within the Japanese business world; for example, at meetings the lower-level employee should sit in the seat closest to the door, called ''shimoza'' (, "lower seat"), while the senior employee (sometimes the boss) sits next to some important guest in a position called ''kamiza'' (, "upper seat"). During meetings, most employees do not give their opinions, but simply listen and concur with their superiors, although they can express opinions with the prior consent of the employees of greater rank and influence in the company. Outside Japan, the ''senpai–kōhai'' relation is often found in the teaching of Japanese martial arts, though misunderstandings arise due to lack of historical knowledge, and as the vertical social hierarchy of Japan does not exist in cultures such as those in the West.


Issues

Despite the ''senpai–kōhai'' relation's deep roots in Japanese society, there have been changes since the end of the 20th century in academic and business organizations. ''Kōhai'' no longer show as much respect to the experience of their ''senpai'', the relation has become more superficial, and the age factor has begun to lose importance. The student body has diversified with Japanese students, who have spent a large part of their lives overseas and have returned to Japan, as well as foreign students without a mentality rooted in the Japanese hierarchical system. The collapse of the economic bubble in the early 1990s caused a high level of unemployment, including the laying off of high-ranked employees. Companies since then first began to consider employees' skills rather than age or length of service with the company, due to which many long-serving employees lost their positions over being incapable of fulfilling expectations. Gradually many companies have had to restructure their salary and promotion systems, and seniority has thus lost some influence in Japanese society. Attitudes towards the ''senpai–kōhai'' system vary from appreciation for traditions and the benefits of a good ''senpai–kōhai'' relationship; to reluctant acquiescence; to antipathy. Those who criticize the system find it arbitrary and unfair, that ''senpai'' were often pushy, and that the system results in students who are shy or afraid of standing out from the group. For example, some ''kōhai'' fear that if they outperform their ''senpai'' in an activity, their ''senpai'' will
lose face Face is a class of behaviors and customs practiced mainly in Asian cultures, associated with the morality, honor, and authority of an individual (or group of individuals), and its image in social groups. Face refers to a sociological concept in ...
, for which ''kōhai'' must apologize. In some cases, the relation is open to violence and bullying. Most Japanese people—even those who criticize it—accept the ''senpai–kōhai'' system as a
common-sense ''Common Sense'' is a 47-page pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1775–1776 advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies. Writing in clear and persuasive prose, Paine collected various moral and political arg ...
aspect of society, straying from which would have inevitably negative social consequences.


See also

*
Etiquette in Japan Etiquette in Japan forms common societal expectations of social behavior practiced throughout the nation of Japan. The etiquette of Japan has changed greatly over the millennia as different civilizations influenced its culture. Modern Japanese et ...
*
Honne and tatemae In Japan, refers to a person's , and refers contrastingly to . This distinction began to be made in the post-war era.Takeo Doi, ''The Anatomy of Self'', 1985 A person's may be contrary to what is expected by society or what is required acco ...
*
Japanese honorifics The Japanese language makes use of a system of honorific speech, called , which includes honorific suffixes and prefixes when referring to others in a conversation. Suffixes are often gender-specific at the end of names, while prefixes are att ...
*
Sensei Sensei, Seonsaeng, Tiên sinh or Xiansheng, corresponding to Chinese characters , is an East Asian honorific term shared in Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and Chinese; it is literally translated as "person born before another" or "one who c ...


References


Works cited

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Senpai and kohai Japanese values Dichotomies Japanese words and phrases