Sōjōbō

In Japanese folklore and mythology, is the mythical king and god of the ''tengu'', legendary creatures thought to inhabit the mountains and forests of Japan. Sōjōbō is a specific type of ''tengu'' called ''daitengu'' and has the appearance of a yamabushi, a Japanese mountain hermit. ''Daitengu'' have a primarily human form with some bird-like features such as wings and claws. The other distinctive physical characteristics of Sōjōbō include his long, white hair and unnaturally long nose.

Sōjōbō is said to live on Mount Kurama. He rules over the other ''tengu'' that inhabit Mount Kurama in addition to all the other ''tengu'' in Japan. He is extremely powerful, and one legend says he has the strength of 1,000 normal ''tengu''.

Sōjōbō is perhaps best known for the legend of his teaching the warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune (then known by his childhood name Ushiwaka-maru or Shanao) the arts of swordsmanship, tactics, and magic.

Etymology

Most ''tengu'' are referred to impersonally.Ashkenazi, p. 56. Sōjōbō is an exception and is one of the ''tengu'' that are given personal names and recognised as individual personalities. The name ''Sōjōbō'' originated in a text called ''Tengu Meigikō'', which dates back to the middle of the Edo period in Japan.Knutsen, p. 95.

The name ''Sōjōbō'' originates from ''Sōjōgatani'', the valley at Mount Kurama near Kibune Shrine associated with the Shugenja. It is in this valley that Ushiwaka-maru trained with Sōjōbō in legend. ''Sōjōgatani'' means Bishop's valley or Bishop's vale.Knutsen, p. 114.de Benneville, p. 273. The name of this valley is derived from the ascetic Sōjō Ichiyen.

In Japanese, the name ''Sōjōbō'' is composed of three kanji: . The first two characters of Sōjōbō's name, mean "Buddhist high priest" in Japanese. The final kanji, , also means "Buddhist priest" but is also commonly used to mean ''yamabushi''.de Visser, p. 82.

The are ascetics from the Shugendō tradition.Buswell et al., p. 1019. incorporates elements of many religious traditions, including Buddhism.Buswell et al., p. 812. Both ''tengu'' and ''yamabushi'' had a reputation for dwelling in the mountains. Yves Bonnefoy suggests that this contributed to the folk belief that ''yamabushi'' and ''tengu'' were identical or at least closely connected.Bonnefoy, p. 286.

Other names

Sōjōbō is also referred to by other names and titles that function as names. Sōjōbō is sometimes called the Kurama tengu.Ashkenazi, p. 271. This name references Sōjōbō's mountain home, Mount Kurama. Ronald Knutsen refers to Sōjōbō by the title of Tengu-san. Sōjōbō is also named by references to his title as the king of the ''tengu''.Davis, p. 41.''Tengu no Dairi'' (ca.1560–1600). For example, James de Benneville refers to Sōjōbō using the term goblin-king. Similarly, Catherina Blomberg says that the titles "Dai Tengu (Great Tengu) or Tengu Sama (Lord Tengu)" are used to name Sōjōbō.Blomberg, p. 35. Sometimes, Sōjōbō is named using both a title and a reference to Mount Kurama. The Noh play ''Kurama-Tengu'', for example, features a character named Great Tengu of Mount Kurama."Kuramatengu", The-NOH.com.

Mythology

Sōjōbō is known for his relationship with the Japanese warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune in legend.Cali and Dougill, p. 125. After Yoshitsune's father was killed in a battle with the Taira clan, the young Yoshitsune was sent to a temple on Mount Kurama.Ashkenazi, p. 97. On Mount Kurama, Yoshitsune met Sōjōbō and was trained by him in martial arts. Yoshitsune became a highly skilled warrior as a result of Sōjōbō's training.Davis, p. 42. For example, in the war epic ''Heiji monogatari (The Tale of Heiji)'' it is said that the training young Yoshitsune received "was the reason why he could run and jump beyond the limits of human power"de Visser, p. 47.

Portrayal

In the tenth and eleventh centuries, de Visser says that ''tengu'' were thought to be "a mountain demon" that caused trouble in the human world.de Visser, p. 43. In stories from this period, ''tengu'' were portrayed as enemies of Buddhism. Later, ''tengu'' were no longer seen as enemies of Buddhism specifically, but were portrayed as wanting to "throw the whole word into disorder".de Visser, p. 67. According to de Visser, the reason Sōjōbō trains Yoshitsune in martial arts is to start a war.de Visser, p. 48.

In the ''Gikeiki'', a text concerning the life of Yoshitsune, ''Sōjōgatani'' or Bishop's valley is described as being the location of a once popular temple that is now deserted except for ''tengu''. According to the text, when evening approaches "there is a loud crying of spirits" and whoever visits the valley is seized by the ''tengu'' and tortured. A similar phenomenon is called ''kamikakushi''. ''Kamikakushi'' involves the kidnapping of human beings by a supernatural entity, such as a ''tengu''.Foster, p. 135. It involves the disappearance of a child, usually a boy, followed by their return at a new and strange location and in a seemingly altered state. Cases of ''kamikakushi'' can be caused by any ''yōkai'', but ''tengu'' are often said to be involved.Foster, p. 137. Michael Foster says that the legend of the young Yoshitsune's interaction with the tengu "fits the pattern" of a ''kamikakushi'' kidnapping

In the fourteenth century, de Visser says, there is a change from all ''tengu'' being portrayed as bad to distinctions made "between good and bad tengu".de Visser, p. 93. Foster says that in variations of the legend of Sōjōbō and the young Yoshitsune, the ''tengu'' are portrayed as benevolent and helpful as they attempt to help the young Yoshitsune defeat the clan who killed his father.

Foster quotes dialogue from a work called ''Miraiki (Chronicle of the Future)'' to demonstrate the idea of the ''tengu'' being portrayed in a more benevolent way. After the subordinate ''tengu'' see the young Yoshitsune practising near the temple on Mount Kurama, they explain that their prideful ways prevented them from becoming Buddhas and instead caused them to become ''tengu''.Foster, p. 134. Then they say:

The portrayal of the ''tengu'', and Sōjōbō specifically, as sympathetic to the young Yoshitsune and his desire to avenge his father, is also shown in the Noh play ''Kurama-tengu''. In the play, the Great Tengu represents the figure of Sōjōbō. The Great Tengu says he his impressed with the Ushiwakamaru character, the young Yoshitsune, for his respectfulness and admirable intentions. Not only does he help Ushiwakamaru by training him to become a great warrior and defeat his enemies, he also promises to protect him and support him in future battles.

Classification

Sōjōbō is a ''tengu'', which are a type of nonhuman creature in Japanese folklore and mythology with supernatural characteristics and abilities. ''Tengu'' are also considered well-known example of ''yōkai''.Foster, p. 130. ''Yōkai'' is a term that can describe a range of different supernatural beings. According to Foster, a ''yōkai'' can be characterised in a number of ways, such as "… a weird or mysterious creature, a monster or fantastic being, a spirit or a sprit"Foster, p. 24.

There are two main sub-categories or types of ''tengu''.Foster, p. 131. First, there are ''tengu'' with the primary form of a bird and second there are ''tengu'' that have the primary form of a human. ''Tengu'' of the first sub-category are generally called ''kotengu'' but can also be called ''karasu tengu'' or ''shōtengu''.Knutsen, p. 10. The second sub-category of tengu is called ''daitengu'' or "long-nosed tengu". As he is described as having a primarily human form, Sōjōbō belongs to the sub-category ''daitengu''.

''Daitengu''

The ''daitengu'' or long nosed ''tengu'' represent a later stage in the development of the concept of ''tengu'' in Japan. According to de Visser, ''tengu'' were first in the form of a bird, then had a human form with the head of a bird, and finally the bird beak became a long nose.de Visser, p. 44. Similarly, Basil Hall Chamberlain says that the beak of the ''tengu'' "becomes a large and enormously long human nose, and the whole creature is conceived as human".Chamberlain, p. 443. There is no mention of the ''tengu'' having long noses in Japanese tales until after the second half of the fourteenth century. While the ''kotengu'' or bird type of tengu came first, the ''daitengu'' with the long human nose is more common in modern Japanese culture. Sōjōbō is one of the "eight great dai-tengu" and, of these, one of the three that are most well-known.

Characteristics

Physical appearance

As a ''daitengu'', Sōjōbō has a primarily human form. Frederick Hadland Davis describes Sōjōbō as having both “bird-like claws, and feathered wings” and "a long red nose and enormous glaring eyes". Similarly, de Visser says Sōjōbō has "sparkling eyes and a big nose".de Visser, p. 95. Sōjōbō is also described as having a long white beard. ''Daitengu'' are described as being larger in overall size than ''kotengu''.Knutsen, p. 10. For example, in one legend Sōjōbō appears to be a giant from the perspective of a human.

One characteristic that both types of ''tengu'' share is their style of dress. ''Tengu'' are depicted wearing religious clothing and accessories, especially the clothing and accessories of the ''yamabushi''. As such, Sōjōbō is often described or depicted with these items and wearing these clothes. The dress of the ''yamabushi'' includes formal robes, square-toed shoes, a sword, a scroll, a fan, and a distinctive headdress.Knutsen, p. 128. The distinctive headdress worn by ''yamabushi'' is called a ''tokin''. A common style of ''tokin'', worn from the start of the Edo period, is a small hat that resembles a black box.Absolon, p. 98. Sōjōbō carries a fan made from seven feathers as a sign of his position at the top of ''tengu'' society.Griffis, p. 113. Bonnefoy says that the feather fan carried by ''tengu'' may signify the original bird-like features of the ''tengu'' Similarly, Davis says that in the development of the concept of ''tengu'' from bird-like to more human-like, “nothing bird-like” was left except for "the fan of feathers with which it fans itself".Davis, p. 352.

Supernatural abilities

Another characteristic that Sōjōbō shares with ''yamabushi'' is a reputation for having supernatural abilities. ''Yamabushi'' often performed various practises in the mountains to try and attain supernatural abilities. According to folk belief, ''yamabushi'' had the abilities of flight and invisibility ''Tengu'' were thought to be able to spiritually possess human beings, similar to foxes.Bonnefoy, p. 285. Other abilities attributed to ''tengu'' include invisibility, shapeshifting, flight, and the ability to tell the future.Bonnefoy, p. 287. Sōjōbō is portrayed as having a reputation for being more powerful than other ''tengu'' or being a "match for a thousand"Kimbrough (2012), p. 4.

Roles

Mount Kurama chieftain

The ''daitengu'' subcategory of ''tengu'' is superior to the ''kotengu'' in rank. Foster says that the different types of ''tengu'' were often depicted as being in a hierarchical relationship to one another, with the ''daitengu'' "flanked by a posse" of the ''kotengu'' who are "portrayed as lieutenants" to the ''daitengu''.Foster, p. 135. The higher rank of the daitengu is also shown by the hierarchical structure on the ''tengu'' mountains.

In general, ''tengu'' of both types are thought to inhabit mountainous areas in Japan. Some individual ''daitengu'' are linked with specific mountains in Japan and are considered to be the chieftains of the other ''tengu'' on that mountain. The mountain that Sōjōbō is said to inhabit is Mount Kurama. According to Knutsen, Mount Kurama is "associated in the popular mind with the tengu".Knutsen, p. 113. Mount Kurama is located north of the city of Kyōto in Japan. On Mount Kurama there is a famous shrine and temple called ''Kuramadera'', which dates back to 770 AD.Cali and Dougill, p. 124. The mountain has connections to the history of both reiki and aikido. Mount Kurama is known as a "new-age power spot" in modern times.

Sōjōbō is considered to be the chieftain of Mount Kurama. Blomberg describes Sōjōbō as having "retainers" who "have the form of a karasu tengu". An example of the hierarchy of the two sub-categories of ''tengu'' is exhibited in the Noh play ''Kurama-Tengu''. In the play, there are ''tengu'' characters who are described as menial and are given orders by Sōjōbō or the Great Tengu character.

King of the ''tengu''

In addition to role of chieftain of Mount Kurama, Sōjōbō is considered to be the chieftain or king of all the other ''tengu'' mountains in Japan. Sōjōbō's role as king of the ''tengu'' is demonstrated in the Noh play ''Kurama-Tengu''. In the play, the Great Tengu lists his large number of ''tengu'' servants, which are not just ''tengu'' from Mount Kurama but ''tengu'' from other areas as well. This demonstrates his authority over both the ''tengu'' on Mount Kurama and all the other ''tengu'' in Japan. This authority is also shown in a story called ''The Palace of the Tengu''. In the story, the figure of Sōjōbō is called Great Tengu. He orders one of his ''tengu'' servants to send a message to summon the ''tengu'' chieftains of other mountains on his behalf.Kimbrough and Shirane (2018). These ''tengu'' chieftains include "Tarōbō of Mount Atago, Jirōbō of Mount Hira, Saburōbō of Mount Kōya, Shirōbo of Mount Nachi, and Buzenbō of Mount Kannokura".

Sōjōbō is specifically associated with a place on Mount Kurama called ''Sōjōgatani'' or Bishop's valley. According to de Benneville, this area was thought to be "the haunt of tengu, even … the seat of the court of their goblin-king". Similarly, de Visser says that some ''tengu'' live in “brilliant palaces” and Sōjōbō or the "Great Tengu" was "the Lord of such a palace". Sōjōbō's ''tengu'' palace features in the story ''The Palace of the Tengu''. A character in this story, Minamoto no Yoshitsune, reaches the ''tengu'' palace by starting at the bottom of the slope of the temple on Mount Kurama, climbing a path up the mountainside until he reaches coloured walls that lead him to the gates of the palace. He finds the palace to be very large, elaborate, and decorated with different jewels. According to the story, the palace contains "hundreds of tengu".

Appearances

In performing arts

The Noh play ''Kurama-Tengu'' features an interpretation of the legend about Sōjōbō and Yoshitsune. is a genre of traditional Japanese theatre.Kagaya and Miura, p. 24.Salz, p. 51. Shinko Kagaya and Hiroko Miura say Noh is comparable to opera because of its focus on dance and music.

In ''Kurama-Tengu'', Sōjōbō is initially disguised as a mountain priest and befriends the young Yoshitsune (called Ushiwakamaru at this age) at a celebration of the cherry blossoms on Mount Kurama. Then the following exchange between the two characters occurs:

After his true identity is revealed, the Great Tengu says he will “hand down the secret of the art of war” to Ushiwakamaru. The Great Tengu instructs the menial ''tengu'' to practice with Ushiwakamaru. Ushiwakamaru then becomes extremely skilled, as demonstrated by the words of the reciters who say that "even the monsters in the heavens and the demons in the underworld will be unable to beat his elegance with braveness". The play ends with the Great Tengu predicting that Ushiwakamaru will defeat his enemies and avenge his father. He then promises to protect Ushiwakamaru before disappearing into the trees of Mount Kurama.

The legend of Yoshitsune learning martial arts from the ''tengu'' is also featured in another genre of Japanese drama called ''kōwakamai''. The main element of ''kōwakamai'' is performance, but the texts associated with the performances are also significant to the genre.Kimbrough (Cambridge, 2016), p. 362. The ''kōwakamai'' work featuring the legend is called ''Miraiki (Chronicle of the Future)''. This work has a similar plot to the literary work ''Tengu no dairi (The Palace of the Tengu)''.Kimbrough (Cambridge, 2016), p. 359.

In literary arts

An example from the literary arts of the legend of Sōjōbō and Yoshitsune is the ''otogi-zōshi'' story called ''Tengu no dairi (The Palace of the Tengu)''. ''Otogi-zōshi'' is a genre of Japanese fiction that was prominent in the fourteenth century and up to seventeenth century. Sōjōbō also independently features in an ''otogi-zōshi'' story called ''The Tale of the Handcart Priest''.

In ''Tengu no dairi (The Palace of the Tengu)'', a young Yoshitsune seeks out and visits the palace of the ''tengu''. He meets the Great Tengu and his wife, who tell him that his father "has been reborn as Dainichi Buddha in the Pure Land of Amida". The story then covers the supernatural journey of the Great Tengu and the young Yoshitsune through the "six planes of karmic transmigration" to visit Yoshitsune's father in the Pure Land.Kimbrough (Cambridge, 2016), p. 358.

Sōjōbō is not the protagonist of the story ''The Tale of the Handcart Priest'' but is mentioned when a group of ''tengu'' notice his absence from their gathering. They were gathering to conspire against the character the Handcart Priest and were in need of Sōjōbō's help. A messenger is sent to Sōjōbō to ask for his help, and he tells the messenger that he doesn't want to take part because he has been nearly fatally wounded by the Handcart Priest and "may not survive".Kimbrough (2012), p. 5. The other ''tengu'' say that they will never succeed without the aid of Sōjōbō and that the Handcart Priest must be remarkable if he was able to wound "the likes of our Sōjōbō".

In visual arts

The legendary relationship between Sōjōbō as instructor and the young Yoshitsune as student serves as the basis of many Japanese woodblock prints. Many of these works were created by artists known for their work in the ukiyo-e genre. Some of these artists include Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Utagawa Hiroshige, Kawanabe Kyōsai, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Utagawa Kunisada, and Keisai Eisen.

Related figures

Related figures to Sōjōbō include the other two famous ''tengu'', Zegaibō of China and Tarōbō of Mount Atago.Kimbrough (Routledge, 2016), p. 530. Like Sōjōbō, these tengu are ''daitengu'', chieftains of a ''tengu'' mountain, and appear in different forms of Japanese art. Kimbrough says that in one version of the ''Heike monogatari'', the ''tengu'' Tarōbō is described as the greatest ''tengu'' in Japan.Kimbrough (Routledge, 2016), p. 531. In the text ''Gempei Seisuiki'', Tarōbō is described as the ''first'' of the great ''tengu''.de Visser, p. 53.

Sōjōbō is also depicted with a similar appearance to other types of supernatural entities. After looking at a drawing of Yoshitsune with a long-nosed ''tengu'', Osman Edwards says that the ''tengu'' "has many characteristics in common with the Scandinavian ''trold''".Edwards, p. 154. In Scandinavian folklore, the troll is a legendary monster that, like the ''tengu'', dwells in mountains and forests.Bann, p. 544. Secondly, Sōjōbō and ''daitengu'' in general are depicted in a similar way to a kami or Shinto deity called Sarutahiko. Ashkenazi says descriptions of Sarutahiko present him as being very tall, having an extremely long nose, and with "mirror-like eyes" that "shone cherry-red from inner flames".Ashkenazi, p. 245.

Modern legacy

One modern legacy of Sōjōbō is his representation in Japanese festivals. According to F. Brinkley, entities from the "region of allegory" are honoured at these festivals alongside deities.Brinkley, p. 3. At some festivals, decorated shrines devoted to a particular deity or subject are mounted on a wooden cart called a ''dashi'' and are carried down the streets in a procession as part of the festival's celebrations. At the festival of Sanno in Tokyo, there is a ''dashi'' dedicated to Ushiwaka and Sōjōbō.Brinkley, p. 5. Brinkley says that it was common for the people attending to festival to know the history surrounding each ''dashi'' and its subject.Brinkley, p. 6.

The influence of Sōjōbō is also present in popular culture. ''Tengu'' have become a common subject in different forms Japanese media including film, video games, manga, and anime. One early example is the novel series ''Kurama Tengu'' authored by Jiro Osaragi, a series of stories about a covert warrior who assumes the titular title as his vigilante persona.

See also

* Eboshi-ori
* Kiichi Hōgen
* Buddhism in Japan
* Sacred mountains
* Japanese martial arts
* Woodblock printing in Japan

References

Works cited

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External links

Sōjōbō
Entry from an online database featuring information and original illustrations of the Japanese legendary creatures known as yōkai.

Photographs from a performance of the Noh play ''Kurama-tengu''.
Tengu
Part of a digital exhibition called ''Yōkai Senjafuda'' by the University of Oregon.
Ushiwakamaru and the Giant Tengu
Photograph of a float depicting Sōjōbō and Ushiwakamaru at a traditional Japanese festival called the Aomori Nebuta Matsuri.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sojobo
Japanese gods
Shinto kami
Yōkai
Tengu