The Swedish–Norwegian War, also known as the Campaign against Norway ( sv, Fälttåget mot Norge), War with Sweden 1814 ( no, Krigen med Sverige 1814), or the Norwegian War of Independence, was a war fought between
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
and
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
in the summer of 1814. The war resulted in a compromise, with Norway being forced into the
United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway
United may refer to:
Places
* United, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community
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Arts and entertainment Films
* ''United'' (2003 film), a Norwegian film
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, a union with Sweden under the Swedish king
Charles XIII
Charles XIII, or Carl XIII ( sv, Karl XIII, 7 October 1748 – 5 February 1818), was King of Sweden from 1809 and King of Norway from 1814 to his death. He was the second son (and younger brother to King Gustav III) of King Adolf Frederick of Sw ...
, but with Norway having its own constitution and parliament.
Background
Treaty of Kiel
As early as in 1812, prior to the
Napoleonic invasion of Russia
The French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian campaign, the Second Polish War, the Army of Twenty nations, and the Patriotic War of 1812 was launched by Napoleon Bonaparte to force the Russian Empire back into the continental block ...
, the Swedish Crown Prince
Charles John (Karl Johan) - formerly
Marshal of France
Marshal of France (french: Maréchal de France, plural ') is a French military distinction, rather than a military rank, that is awarded to generals for exceptional achievements. The title has been awarded since 1185, though briefly abolished (1 ...
Jean Baptiste Bernadotte - had entered into an agreement with Tsar
Alexander I Alexander I may refer to:
* Alexander I of Macedon, king of Macedon 495–454 BC
* Alexander I of Epirus (370–331 BC), king of Epirus
* Pope Alexander I (died 115), early bishop of Rome
* Pope Alexander I of Alexandria (died 320s), patriarch of ...
that
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
would support a Swedish attack on Norway in order to force
Denmark-Norway to cede its northern part to Sweden. The Swedish attack against Norway was postponed, however, due to the fluid state of the conflict between Napoleon and the
Sixth Coalition
Sixth is the ordinal form of the number six.
* The Sixth Amendment, to the U.S. Constitution
* A keg of beer, equal to 5 U.S. gallons or barrel
* The fraction
Music
* Sixth interval (music)s:
** major sixth, a musical interval
** minor six ...
. The Swedish army and, incidentally, Karl Johan's skills as a general, were urgently needed against
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
in
Central Europe
Central Europe is an area of Europe between Western Europe and Eastern Europe, based on a common historical, social and cultural identity. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) between Catholicism and Protestantism significantly shaped the area' ...
. On 18 May 1813 Swedish troops re-occupied
Swedish Pomerania
Swedish Pomerania ( sv, Svenska Pommern; german: Schwedisch-Pommern) was a dominion under the Swedish Crown from 1630 to 1815 on what is now the Baltic coast of Germany and Poland. Following the Polish War and the Thirty Years' War, Sweden held ...
and deployed against Napoleon's forces as a result of treaties between Karl Johan (on behalf of Sweden),
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It is ...
and
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an em ...
, which ceded Norway to Sweden for its participation in the war, becoming effective after France and its allies (including
Denmark-Norway) were defeated.
In early December Karl Johan led an invasion of Denmark with his Allied Army of the North that included Swedes, Russians and North Germans. The Danes were outnumbered and were unable to mount a coherent defense against Karl Johan's battle-hardened army. Within a few days the Danes were forced out of Holstein and into Jutland proper. By December 14 Bernadotte agreed to an armistice and peace talks began in Kiel on the basis of ceding Norway to Sweden in return for Swedish Pomerania, additional territory in North Germany, specifics to be decided at the general peace conference following the cessation of hostilities between the Sixth Coalition and Imperial France, as well as 1,000,000 Riksdalers. The Danish position was hopeless and by early January 1814, King
Frederik VI
Frederick VI (Danish and no, Frederik; 28 January 17683 December 1839) was King of Denmark from 13 March 1808 to 3 December 1839 and King of Norway from 13 March 1808 to 7 February 1814, making him the last king of Denmark–Norway. From 1784 ...
of Denmark-Norway reconciled himself to the necessity of losing Norway.
By the
Treaty of Kiel
The Treaty of Kiel ( da, Kieltraktaten) or Peace of Kiel ( Swedish and no, Kielfreden or ') was concluded between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Sweden on one side and the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway on t ...
, signed on 13 January, King
Frederik VI
Frederick VI (Danish and no, Frederik; 28 January 17683 December 1839) was King of Denmark from 13 March 1808 to 3 December 1839 and King of Norway from 13 March 1808 to 7 February 1814, making him the last king of Denmark–Norway. From 1784 ...
had to cede the Kingdom of Norway to the King of Sweden. However, this treaty was not accepted by the Norwegian people, who refused to be simply a bargaining chip. Elements of the Danish government also covertly supported Norway's determination not to be incorporated into Sweden. Ultimately, Denmark would pay a catastrophic price for the Treaty, as Karl Johan viewed this support, no matter how covert, as betrayal and a violation of the Treaty, and this would later be reflected in the final peace settlement at the
Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon B ...
, which voided Kiel's promise to compensate Denmark for its loss of Norway with Swedish Pomerania, various additional Northern German territory, and 1,000,000 Riksdalers.
Norwegian Constituent Assembly
An insurrection broke out, led by Prince
Kristian Frederik of Denmark,
heir presumptive
An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an heir apparent or a new heir presumptive with a better claim to the position in question.
...
to the thrones of Denmark and Norway and
Governor-general of Norway (and later King
Kristian VIII of Denmark). He gathered a constitutional assembly which adopted the liberal constitution of 17 May, with that constitution also electing Christian Frederick as king of an independent Norway.
As the head of the new state, Kristian Frederik desperately tried to gain support from the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
, or any of the other major powers within the
Sixth Coalition
Sixth is the ordinal form of the number six.
* The Sixth Amendment, to the U.S. Constitution
* A keg of beer, equal to 5 U.S. gallons or barrel
* The fraction
Music
* Sixth interval (music)s:
** major sixth, a musical interval
** minor six ...
, in order to maintain Norway's independence. However, the foreign diplomats refused to promise any outside support to the Norwegians.
Armies
The Norwegian Army mustered 30,000 men, and it had taken up positions away from the border with Sweden, in the fear of being outflanked. The Norwegian navy had few vessels, and most of them were stationed at the islands of
Hvaler
Hvaler is a municipality that is a group of islands in the southern part of Viken County, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Skjærhalden, on the island of Kirkeøy. The only police station in the municipa ...
, close to Sweden.
The Swedish Army consisted of 45,000 men, experienced and well-equipped soldiers. The Swedish Navy had a number of large vessels and a capacity for moving and landing troops as well as assistance from the British Royal Navy.
Major commanders
*
Charles John (Karl Johan) – former
Marshal of France
Marshal of France (french: Maréchal de France, plural ') is a French military distinction, rather than a military rank, that is awarded to generals for exceptional achievements. The title has been awarded since 1185, though briefly abolished (1 ...
Jean Baptiste Bernadotte and in 1813 Crown Prince of Sweden
*
Magnus Björnstjerna – Swedish general
*
Johannes Klingenberg Sejersted – Norwegian major general
*
Frederik Gottschalck von Haxthausen – Norwegian minister of finance and Oberhofmarschall
War
The hostilities opened on 26 July with a swift Swedish naval attack against the Norwegian gunboats at
Hvaler
Hvaler is a municipality that is a group of islands in the southern part of Viken County, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Skjærhalden, on the island of Kirkeøy. The only police station in the municipa ...
. The Norwegian army was evacuated and the vessels managed to escape, but they did not take part in the rest of the war. The main Swedish offensive came across the border at
Halden
Halden (), between 1665 and 1928 known as Fredrikshald, is both a town and a municipality in Viken county, Norway. The municipality borders Sarpsborg to the northwest, Rakkestad to the north and Aremark to the east, as well as the Swedish muni ...
, bypassing and surrounding the fortress of
Fredriksten
Fredriksten is a fortress in the city of Halden in Norway.
History
This Fortresses was constructed by Denmark-Norway in the 17th century as a replacement for the border fortress at Bohus, which had been lost when the province of Bohuslän was ...
, and then continuing north, while a second force of 6,000 soldiers landed at
Kråkerøy
Kråkerøy is an island and a former municipality in Viken county, Norway.
The island of Kråkerøy was separated from Glemmen as a municipality of its own January 1, 1908. At that time Kråkerøy had a population of 3,311. The rural municipality ...
outside of
Fredrikstad
Fredrikstad (; previously ''Frederiksstad''; literally "Fredrik's Town") is a List of cities in Norway, city and Municipalities of Norway, municipality in Viken (county), Viken Counties of Norway, county, Norway. The administrative centre of the ...
. This town surrendered the next day. This was the start of a pincer movement around the main part of the Norwegian army at
Rakkestad
Rakkestad is a municipality in Viken county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Rakkestad. It is divided into the parishes of Rakkestad, Degernes, and Os. The municipality is the county's second largest b ...
.
On the front towards
Kongsvinger
Kongsvinger () is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Glåmdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Kongsvinger. Other settlements in the municipality include Aus ...
the forces were more evenly matched, and the Norwegian army eventually stopped the Swedish advance at
Lier on 2 August, and won another victory at
Matrand
Matrand is a village in Eidskog Municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. The village is located approximately south of the town of Kongsvinger and about north of the village of Skotterud. Matrand is approximately northwest of the border with ...
on 5 August. On 3 August, King Christian Frederick reached the front at
Østfold
Østfold is a traditional region, a former county and a current electoral district in southeastern Norway. It borders Akershus and southwestern Sweden (Västra Götaland County and Värmland), while Buskerud and Vestfold are on the other side o ...
and was persuaded to change his strategy and use the 6,000 men stationed at Rakkestad in a counterattack against the Swedes. The order to counterattack was given on the 5th of August, but the order was recalled a few hours later. The Norwegian forces therefore withdrew over the Glomma river at
Langnes in
Askim
Askim () is a town and a former municipality in (from January 1, 2020) Indre Østfold Kommune in the former county of Østfold county (from January 1, 2020 a part of Viken county), Norway.
The administrative centre of the Askim municipality wa ...
.
[ Dyrvik, Ståle; Feldbæk, Ole (1996). Aschehoughs Norgeshistorie - Mellom brødre - 1780-1830. 7. Oslo: H. Aschehough & Co. p. 159] The last major battle of the war was fought on 9 August at the bridgehead at
Langnes, where the Swedish forces once more were driven back.
[''Syv-aars-krigen for 17de mai 1807-1814'' (1914)]
by Henrik Angell (1995),
Sweden then attempted to outflank the Norwegian line, and successfully did so during the
battle of Kjølberg Bridge
The Battle of Kjølberg Bridge ( sv, Slaget vid Kjølbergs bro) was fought 14 August 1814, during the Swedish–Norwegian war of 1814. The Swedish army had problems repairing the bridge due to constant fire from the Norwegian side of the river. ...
on the 14th of August. The Swedes then had a clear path to
Kristiania
Oslo ( , , or ; sma, Oslove) is the capital and most populous city of Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality. The municipality of Oslo had a population of in 2022, while the city's greater urban area had a population of ...
, the Norwegian capital. In addition, the British blockade of Norway cut off trade and military supplies, which combined with the proximity of Swedish armies eventually made the Norwegians' military situation unsustainable.
[''Syv-aars-krigen for 17de mai 1807-1814'' (1914)]
by Henrik Angell (1995),
Although the Norwegian Army had won at Langnes, it was nevertheless clear to both the Norwegian and Swedish military authorities that a defeat was inevitable.
[ Even as they had managed to deliver several minor offensive blows to the Swedes, it was considered impossible to try to stop the Swedes in the long run.][ The Swedish offer of negotiations was therefore accepted as the war had put a heavy strain on the Norwegian finances. Every day of delay in securing Norway by the Swedes brought uncertainty to them regarding the outcome, so both parties were interested in a quick end to the war.
To the ordinary Norwegian soldier the war had seemed ill-prepared and ill-fought.][ The defeat was blamed on Christian Frederick and the Norwegian general Haxthausen; the latter was accused of treason. For the Norwegian government it had probably been more of a matter of getting the best possible bargaining position, as without the support of major powers Norway's independence was impossible to secure, whereas by agreeing to talks following the victory at Langnes Norway was in a situation where it could avoid an ]unconditional surrender
An unconditional surrender is a surrender in which no guarantees are given to the surrendering party. It is often demanded with the threat of complete destruction, extermination or annihilation.
In modern times, unconditional surrenders most ofte ...
.
Aftermath
On 10 August, Karl Johan presented a proposal for a cease-fire. The proposal included a major concession—Karl Johan, on behalf of the Swedish government as Regent for his ill adopted father, accepted the Eidsvoll constitution. In doing so, he tacitly gave up any claims that Norway would be merely a Swedish province. Negotiations started in Moss, Norway
is a coastal List of cities in Norway, town and a Municipalities of Norway, municipality in Viken (county), Viken Counties of Norway, county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Moss. The city of Moss was establis ...
on 10 August, and after a few days of hard negotiations, a cease fire agreement, called the Convention of Moss, was signed on 14 August. Kristian Frederik was forced to abdicate as King of Norway, but Norway remained nominally independent within a personal union with Sweden, under the Swedish king. Its Constitution was upheld with only such amendments as were required to allow it to enter into the union, and the two united kingdoms retained separate institutions, except for the king and the foreign service and policy.
See also
* Gunboat War
The Gunboat War (, ; 1807–1814) was a naval conflict between Denmark–Norway and the British during the Napoleonic Wars. The war's name is derived from the Danish tactic of employing small gunboats against the materially superior Royal Na ...
* Kingdom of Norway (1814)
In 1814, the Kingdom of Norway made a brief and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to regain its independence. While Norway had always legally been a separate kingdom, since the 16th century it had shared a monarch with Denmark; Norway was a subo ...
References
;Footnotes
;Literature
*
*
*
* Ulf Sundberg: Svenska krig 1521-1814 wedish Wars 1521-1814*
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Swedish-Norwegian War (1814)
1814 in Sweden
1814 in Norway
Conflicts in 1814
Wars of independence
Scandinavian history
Wars involving Sweden
Wars involving Norway
Norway–Sweden relations
United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway
Napoleonic Wars
July 1814 events
August 1814 events