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A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a
mound A mound is a heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris. Most commonly, mounds are earthen formations such as hills and mountains, particularly if they appear artificial. A mound may be any rounded area of topographically higher el ...
-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''
śarīra Śarīra is a generic term referring to Buddhist relics, although in common usage it usually refers to pearl or crystal-like bead-shaped objects that are purportedly found among the cremated ashes of Buddhist spiritual masters. Relics of the Bu ...
'' – typically the remains of
Buddhist monks A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics ("nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist c ...
or
nuns A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599. The term is o ...
) that is used as a place of
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally cal ...
. In Buddhism, circumambulation or '' pradakhshina'' has been an important ritual and devotional practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a ''pradakhshina'' path around them. The original
South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;;;;; ...
n form is a large solid dome above a tholobate or drum with vertical sides, which usually sits on a square base. There is no access to the inside of the structure. In large stupas there may be walkways for circumambulation on top of the base as well as on the ground below it. Large stupas have or had ''vedikā'' railings outside the path around the base, often highly decorated with sculpture, especially at the
torana ''Torana'' ( sa, तोरण; '' awr-uh-nuh') is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Toranas can also be widely seen in Southeast Asia and ...
gateways, of which there are usually four. At the top of the dome is a thin vertical element, with one of more horizontal discs spreading from it. These were ''chatra''s, symbolic umbrellas, and tend not to have survived, if not restored. The Great Stupa at Sanchi,
Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
, is the most famous and best-preserved early stupa in India. Apart from very large stupas, designed to attract pilgrims, there were large numbers of smaller stupas in a whole range of sizes, which typically had much taller drums, relative to the height of the dome. Small votive stupas paid for by pilgrims might be less than a metre high, and laid out in rows by the hundred, as at
Ratnagiri, Odisha Ratnagiri (Odia: ରତ୍ନଗିରି, meaning "hill of jewels") is the site of a ruined mahavihara, once the major Buddhist monastery in modern Odisha, India. It is located on a hill in between the Brahmani and Birupa rivers in Jajpur distr ...
. As Buddhism spread, other forms were used for the same purposes, and the chortens of
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
, and the pagodas of
East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed across East Asia which follow the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vi ...
are some of these. In South-East Asia various rather different elongated shapes of dome evolved, leading to high, thin
spire A spire is a tall, slender, pointed structure on top of a roof of a building or tower, especially at the summit of church steeples. A spire may have a square, circular, or polygonal plan, with a roughly conical or pyramidal shape. Spires are ...
s. A related architectural term is a ''
chaitya A chaitya, chaitya hall, chaitya-griha, (Sanskrit:''Caitya''; Pāli: ''Cetiya'') refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in Indian religions. The term is most common in Buddhism, where it refers to a space with a stupa and a rounded ...
'', which is a prayer hall or temple containing a stupa.


Description and history

Stupas may have originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which
śramaṇa ''Śramaṇa'' (Sanskrit; Pali: ''𑀲𑀫𑀦'') means "one who labours, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose)" or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic".Monier Monier-Williams, श्रमण śr ...
s were buried in a seated position called
chaitya A chaitya, chaitya hall, chaitya-griha, (Sanskrit:''Caitya''; Pāli: ''Cetiya'') refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in Indian religions. The term is most common in Buddhism, where it refers to a space with a stupa and a rounded ...
. In early Buddhist inscriptions in India ''stupa'' and ''caitya'' appear to be almost interchangable, though ''caitya'' has a broader meaning, and unlike ''stupa'' does not define an architectural form. In pre-Buddhist India ''caitya'' was a term for a shrine, sanctuary or holy place in the landscape, generally outdoors, inhabited by, or sacred to, a particular deity. In the '' Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'', near the end of his life the Buddha remarks to Ananda how beautiful are the various ''caitya'' round Vaishali. In later times and in other countries
Cetiya upright=1.25, Phra Pathom Chedi, one of the biggest Chedis in Thailand; in Thai, the term Chedi (cetiya) is used interchangeably with the term Stupa Cetiya, "reminders" or "memorials" (Sanskrit ''caitya''), are objects and places used by Buddhi ...
/caitya implies the presence of important relics. Both words have forms prefixed by ''maha'' for "great", "large" or "important", but scholars find the difference between a ''mahastupa'' and a ''stupa'', or ''mahacetiya'' and ''cetiya'' hard to pin down. Some authors have suggested that stupas were derived from a wider cultural tradition from the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
to the Ganges Valley, and can be related to the conical mounds on circular bases from the 8th century BCE that can be found in
Phrygia In classical antiquity, Phrygia ( ; grc, Φρυγία, ''Phrygía'' ) was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now Asian Turkey, centered on the Sangarios River. After its conquest, it became a region of the great empires ...
(tomb of Midas, 8th c. BCE),
Lydia Lydia (Lydian language, Lydian: ‎𐤮𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣𐤠, ''Śfarda''; Aramaic: ''Lydia''; el, Λυδία, ''Lȳdíā''; tr, Lidya) was an Iron Age Monarchy, kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the mod ...
(such as the tomb of
Alyattes Alyattes (Lydian language: ; grc, Ἀλυάττης ; reigned c. 635-585 BC), sometimes described as Alyattes I, was the fourth king of the Mermnad dynasty in Lydia, the son of Sadyattes, grandson of Ardys, and great-grandson of Gyges. He ...
, 6th c. BCE), or in
Phoenicia Phoenicia () was an ancient thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon. The territory of the Phoenician city-states extended and shrank throughout their histor ...
(tombs of Amrit, 5th c. BCE). Archaeologists in India have observed that a number of early Buddhist stupas or burials are found in the vicinity of much older, pre-historic burials, including
megalithic A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. There are over 35,000 in Europe alone, located widely from Sweden to the Mediterranean sea. The ...
sites.Schopen, Gregory. 2004. Buddhist Monks & Business Matters, pg. 361-74 This includes site associated with the
Indus Valley civilization The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900&n ...
where broken Indus-era pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials. Structural features of the stupa- including its general shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone or wooden railing- resemble both pre-Mauryan era cairn burials, as well as pre-historic relic burials found in southern India. Some stupas not believed to have been looted have been found to be empty when excavated, as have some pre-historic cairn sites, and animal bones are suspected to have occasionally been deposited at both types of sites.


Mounds for the relics of the Buddha (5th century BCE)

Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, started to be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Pagoda''. After the
parinirvana In Buddhism, ''parinirvana'' (Sanskrit: '; Pali: ') is commonly used to refer to nirvana-after-death, which occurs upon the death of someone who has attained ''nirvana'' during their lifetime. It implies a release from '' '', karma and rebirth a ...
of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers. According to some early Buddhist sources, the Buddha himself had suggested this treatment, and when asked what a stupa was, had demonstrated the basic design: he folded his robe on the ground, placed his begging-bowl upside down on it, with his staff above that. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas, in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
Allakappa Allakappa was, in Buddhist tradition, one of the eight republics to whom were given the relics of the Buddha upon his death, or Parinirvana.Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p.140-174 Initially, the relics had been kept exclusi ...
,
Ramagrama Ramagrama stupa ( ne, रामग्राम नगरपालिका, also Ramgram, Rāmgrām, Rāmagrāma) is a stupa located in Ramgram Municipality, in the Parasi District of Nepal. This Buddhist pilgrimage site containing relics of G ...
, Pava, Kushinagar, and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Lars Fogelin stated that the Vaisali relic stupa and Nigali Sagar stupa are likely the earliest archaeologically known stupas.
Guard rail Guard rail, guardrails, or protective guarding, in general, are a boundary feature and may be a means to prevent or deter access to dangerous or off-limits areas while allowing light and visibility in a greater way than a fence. Common shapes ...
s —consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping— became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.Chandra (2008) The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long time".Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p.143 This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.


Expansion under Ashoka (250 BCE)

According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor Ashoka (rule: 273—232 BCE) recovered the relics of the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the
Ramagrama stupa Ramagrama stupa ( ne, रामग्राम नगरपालिका, also Ramgram, Rāmgrām, Rāmagrāma) is a stupa located in Ramgram Municipality, in the Parasi District of Nepal. This Buddhist pilgrimage site containing relics of Ga ...
), and erected 84,000 stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date originally from the time of Ashoka, such as Sanchi or
Kesariya Kesariya or Kesaria is a town in the district of East Champaran, in the Indian state of Bihar. It is the site of a stupa built by the Mauryan king Ashoka. Geography It is near Rampur Khajuria. The nearest villages are Noori Mohalla Trilok ...
, where he also erected pillars with his inscriptions, and possibly Bharhut, Amaravati or Dharmarajika in
Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
.Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p.140-174 Ashoka also established the Pillars of Ashoka throughout his realm, generally next to Buddhist stupas. The first known appearance of the word "Stupa" is from an inscribed dedication by Ashoka on the Nigali Sagar pillar (spelled in
Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
in the
Brahmi script Brahmi (; ; ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as 'lath' o ...
as 𑀣𑀼𑀩𑁂 ''"Thube"'' ).


Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE)

Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts at
Sanchi Stupa No.2 The Stupa No. 2 at Sanchi, also called Sanchi II, is one of the oldest existing Buddhist stupas in India, and part of the Buddhist complex of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. It is of particular interest since it has the earliest known important display ...
(125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE),
Bodh Gaya Bodh Gaya is a religious site and place of pilgrimage associated with the Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Gaya district in the Indian state of Bihar. It is famous as it is the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have attained Enlightenment ( pi, ...
(60 BCE),
Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
(125-60 BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the
torana ''Torana'' ( sa, तोरण; '' awr-uh-nuh') is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Toranas can also be widely seen in Southeast Asia and ...
s (1st century BCE/CE) and then Amaravati (1st-2nd century CE).Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p.149-150 The decorative embellishment of stupas also had a considerable development in the northwest in the area of
Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
, with decorated stupas such as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with
Hellenistic In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE) or the Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE). File:Sanchi Stupa number 2 KSP 3660.jpg,
Sanchi Stupa No.2 The Stupa No. 2 at Sanchi, also called Sanchi II, is one of the oldest existing Buddhist stupas in India, and part of the Buddhist complex of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. It is of particular interest since it has the earliest known important display ...
, the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs, circa 125 BCEDidactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 200
p.15ff
/ref> East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg, East Gateway and Railings of Bharhut Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115 BCE,
torana ''Torana'' ( sa, तोरण; '' awr-uh-nuh') is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Toranas can also be widely seen in Southeast Asia and ...
s: 75 BCE. File:Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg, The Great Stupa at SanchiWorld Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 p.50 by Alī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, New Yor

/ref> Decorated
torana ''Torana'' ( sa, तोरण; '' awr-uh-nuh') is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Toranas can also be widely seen in Southeast Asia and ...
s built from the 1st c. BCE to the 1st c. CE. File:British Museum Asia 14.jpg, Amaravati stupa, 1st-2nd century CE


Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE-5th century CE)

The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of
Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
. Since Buddhism spread to
Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
,
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
and ultimately
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
and
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
through Gandhara, the stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa (and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are, in chronological order: #The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar stupas are the Butkara stupa, the
Manikyala Mankiala ( ur, مانكياله ; also known as Manikyala and Manikiyala) is a village in the Potohar plateau, Punjab near Rawalpindi, Pakistan, known for the nearby Mankiala stupa - a Buddhist stupa located at the site where, according to l ...
stupa or the Chakpat stupa. #The
Saidu Sharif Stupa The Saidu Sharif Stupa, excavated under the name Saidu Sharif I, is a Buddhist stupa located near the city of Saidu Sharif, at the foot of the mountains that separate the river valley Saidu from that of the river Jambil, in the Swat District of ...
, pillared and
quincunxial A quincunx () is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. The same pattern has other names, including "in saltire" or "in cross" in heraldry (dep ...
, with a flight of stairs to a dome elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular type (1st century CE). #The
Loriyan Tangai Loriyan Tangai is an archaeological site in the Gandhara area of Pakistan, consisting of many stupas and religious buildings where many Buddhist statues were discovered. The stupas were excavated by Alexander Caddy in 1896, and the many statues o ...
Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE). #The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).After Le Huu Phuoc, Buddhist Architecture, Grafikol 2009, p.179 #The
cruciform Cruciform is a term for physical manifestations resembling a common cross or Christian cross. The label can be extended to architectural shapes, biology, art, and design. Cruciform architectural plan Christian churches are commonly described ...
type, as in the
Bhamala Stupa Bhamala Stupa ( ur, ) is a ruined Buddhist stupa and National Heritage Site near Haripur, Pakistan that dates to the 2nd century CE. It is located on the bank of Haro River, a tributary of a Khanpur Dam, and is a tourist destination. Bhamala st ...
, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal directions (4th century CE). #The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE). StupaWithPillarsGandhara2ndCentury.jpg, A model resembling the
Saidu Sharif Stupa The Saidu Sharif Stupa, excavated under the name Saidu Sharif I, is a Buddhist stupa located near the city of Saidu Sharif, at the foot of the mountains that separate the river valley Saidu from that of the river Jambil, in the Swat District of ...
, with square base and four columns (1st century CE). Loriyan Tangai complete Stupa.jpg,
Loriyan Tangai Loriyan Tangai is an archaeological site in the Gandhara area of Pakistan, consisting of many stupas and religious buildings where many Buddhist statues were discovered. The stupas were excavated by Alexander Caddy in 1896, and the many statues o ...
decorated stupa, in the
Greco-Buddhist art The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art of the north Indian subcontinent is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region of Gandhara. The s ...
of
Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
(2nd century CE). File:Jaulian Stupa A11 reliquary.jpg, A tower-shaped stupa, thought to be the design of the second (rebuilt) Kanishka stupa, Jaulian monastery File:Stupa Reliquary Kushan period, about 2nd century CE.jpg, Stupa-shaped reliquary,
Kushan The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, i ...
period, about 2nd century CE File:Chilas petroglyphs, Buddhist stupa circa 300-350 CE.jpg,
Chilas Chilas ( ur, ) is a city and is the divisional capital of Diamer District located in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, on the Indus River. It is part of the Silk Road connected by the Karakoram Highway and N-90 National Highway, which link it to Islam ...
petroglyphs, Buddhist stupa, circa 300-350 CE based on paleography


Origin of the pyramidal temple

It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the design of the stepped stupas which developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple in
Bodh Gaya Bodh Gaya is a religious site and place of pilgrimage associated with the Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Gaya district in the Indian state of Bihar. It is famous as it is the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have attained Enlightenment ( pi, ...
is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars.Le Huu Phuoc, Buddhist Architecture, pp.238-248 The structure is crowned by the shape of a hemispherical stupa topped by
finial A finial (from '' la, finis'', end) or hip-knob is an element marking the top or end of some object, often formed to be a decorative feature. In architecture, it is a small decorative device, employed to emphasize the Apex (geometry), apex of a d ...
s, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan stupas such as those seen in Jaulian. Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the
Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by se ...
period (5th century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in
Kumrahar Kumhrar or Kumrahar is the area of Patna where remains of the ancient city of Pataliputra were excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India starting from 1913. It is located 5 km east of Patna Railway Station. Archaeological remains of ...
and dated to 150-200 CE based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE. This is confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya. This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This design was very influential in the development of later
Hindu temple A Hindu temple, or ''mandir'' or ''koil'' in Indian languages, is a house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together through worship, sacrifice, and devotion.; Quote: "The Hind ...
s.


Expansion in Asia


Asian stupas

The Chinese Buddhist architecture, p.180
">Songyue Pagoda (523 CE) is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model.Buddhist architecture, p.180 Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and
East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
, where it became prominent as a
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
monument used for enshrining sacred relics. The Indian gateway arches, the ''
torana ''Torana'' ( sa, तोरण; '' awr-uh-nuh') is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Toranas can also be widely seen in Southeast Asia and ...
'', reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that ''
torii A is a traditional Japanese gate most commonly found at the entrance of or within a Shinto shrine, where it symbolically marks the transition from the mundane to the sacred. The presence of a ''torii'' at the entrance is usually the simplest ...
'' derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), ''torii''.
/ref> In
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
, the stupa became the chorten, and the pagoda in
East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general, however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
while "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be used for secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma tend to be referred to as "pagodas." Stupas were built in
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
soon after
Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura Tissa, later Devanampiya Tissa, was one of the earliest kings of Sri Lanka based at the ancient capital of Anuradhapura from 247 BC to 207 BC. His reign was notable for the arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka under the aegis of the Maurya ...
converted to Buddhism. The first stupa to be built was the
Thuparamaya Thuparamaya is the first Buddhist temple that was constructed, after the arrival of Mahinda Thera (Mahindagamanaya) in Sri Lanka. Located in the sacred area of Mahamewna park, the Thuparamaya Stupa is the earliest Dagoba to be constructed in the ...
. Later, many more were built over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in
Anuradhapura Anuradhapura ( si, අනුරාධපුරය, translit=Anurādhapuraya; ta, அனுராதபுரம், translit=Aṉurātapuram) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central ...
, being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world.


Development of the pagoda

The Asian words for pagoda (''tā'' in Chinese, ''t'ap'' in Korean, ''tháp'' in Vietnamese, ''tō'' in Japanese) are all thought to derive from the
Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
word for stupa, ''thupa'', the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
pronunciation being ''stupa''. In particular the type of the tower-like stupa, the last stage of Gandharan stupa development, visible in the second Kanishka stupa (4th century), is thought to be the precussor of the tower stupas in
Turkestan Turkestan, also spelled Turkistan ( fa, ترکستان, Torkestân, lit=Land of the Turks), is a historical region in Central Asia corresponding to the regions of Transoxiana and Xinjiang. Overview Known as Turan to the Persians, western Turke ...
and the Chinese pagodas such as
Songyue Pagoda The Songyue Pagoda (), constructed in AD 523, is located at the Songyue Monastery on Mount Song, in Henan province, China.Yetts, 124. Built during the Northern Wei Dynasty, this pagoda is one of the few intact sixth-century pagodas in China and is ...
(523 CE).Buddhist architecture, p.180


Notable stupas

The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. Some of the oldest known examples of stupas are found in Vaishali, Kushinagar, Piprahwa, Ramgram, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut. With the top of its spire reaching 120.45 meters in height,
Phra Pathommachedi Phra Pathommachedi or Phra Pathom Chedi ( th, พระปฐมเจดีย์) is a Buddhist stupa in Thailand. The stupa is located in the Wat Phra Pathommachedi Ratcha Wora Maha Wihan ( th, วัดพระปฐมเจดีย์ ...
in
Nakhon Pathom Nakhon Pathom ( th, นครปฐม, ) is a city (''thesaban nakhon'') in central Thailand, the former capital of Nakhon Pathom province. One of the most important landmarks is the giant Phra Pathommachedi. The city is also home to Thailand's ...
,
Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
is the tallest extant stupa in the world. The Swat Valley hosts a well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near
Ghalegay Ghalegay ( ps, غالیګے) is a village of Swat Valley, located at a distance of 14 km south of Mingora, on the left bank of Swat River. It is one of the main villages lying between the two cities, Mingora and Barikot. During the recent ...
; another stupa is located near Barikot and Dharmarajika-Taxila in
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
. In
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
, the ancient city of
Anuradhapura Anuradhapura ( si, අනුරාධපුරය, translit=Anurādhapuraya; ta, அனுராதபுரம், translit=Aṉurātapuram) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central ...
includes some of the tallest, most ancient and best preserved stupas in the world, such as
Ruwanwelisaya The Ruwanweli Maha Seya, also known as the Mahathupa (), is a stupa (a hemispherical structure containing relics) in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Two quarts or one Dona of the Buddha's relics are enshrined in the stupa, making it the largest collecti ...
. The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in
Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
,
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
. The upper rounded terrace with rows of bell-shaped stupas contained Buddha images symbolizing
Arūpajhāna In the oldest texts of Buddhism, ''dhyāna'' () or ''jhāna'' () is a component of the training of the mind (''bhavana''), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, "burn up" the ...
, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment. The main stupa is the crown part of the monument, while the base is a pyramidal structure elaborated with galleries adorned with bas relief scenes derived from Buddhist texts and depicting the life of
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
. Borobudur's unique and significant architecture has been acknowledged by UNESCO as the largest Buddhist monument in the world. It is also the world's largest Buddhist temple. as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. A Jain stupa was excavated at
Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
in the 19th century. The Shwedagon Pagoda in
Yangon Yangon ( my, ရန်ကုန်; ; ), formerly spelled as Rangoon, is the capital of the Yangon Region and the largest city of Myanmar (also known as Burma). Yangon served as the capital of Myanmar until 2006, when the military government ...
,
Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...
is one of the largest and most holy stupas in the world.


European stupas

The
Benalmádena Stupa Benalmádena Stupa is a stupa in Benalmádena, Málaga in the Andalusian region of southern Spain, overlooking Costa del Sol. It is high and is the tallest stupa in Europe. It was inaugurated on 5 October 2003, and was the final project of Lopon ...
is the tallest stupa in Europe. It is high and was inaugurated on 5 October 2003, the final project of Buddhist master
Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche (1918, Bhutan - June 10, 2003) was a master of Tibetan Buddhism, widely regarded in the Himalayas, with many students in both the East and the West. Overview As a young boy, he was ordained as a monk in the largest monast ...
. Rinpoche built his first stupa at Karma Guen near
Málaga Málaga (, ) is a municipality of Spain, capital of the Province of Málaga, in the autonomous community of Andalusia. With a population of 578,460 in 2020, it is the second-most populous city in Andalusia after Seville and the sixth most pop ...
in 1994, a symbol of peace and prosperity for Spain. Rinpoche went on to build 16 more stupas in Europe before his death in 2003. A stupa was built on the ground of the Kalachakra Kalapa Centre in southwest
Styria Styria (german: Steiermark ; Serbo-Croatian and sl, ; hu, Stájerország) is a state (''Bundesland'') in the southeast of Austria. With an area of , Styria is the second largest state of Austria, after Lower Austria. Styria is bordered to ...
,
Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
, between 2000 and 2002. A stupa based on the bell shaped stupas at Boropodur, Central Java, is located at Amaravati Buddhist Monastery near
Hemel Hempstead Hemel Hempstead () is a town in the Dacorum district in Hertfordshire, England, northwest of London, which is part of the Greater London Urban Area. The population at the 2011 census was 97,500. Developed after the Second World War as a ne ...
in the United Kingdom.


Types of stupas

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function into five types: * Relic stupa, in which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples, and lay saints are interred. * Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures. * Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples. * Symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology; for example, Borobudur is considered to be the symbol of "the Three Worlds (''dhatu'') and the spiritual stages (''bhumi'') in a Mahayana ''bodhisattva's'' character." * Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.


Symbolism

"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne."


Five purified elements

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements: * The square base represents earth * The hemispherical dome/vase represents water * The conical spire represents fire * The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represent air * The sun and the dissolving point represent wisdom


Construction

To build a stupa,
Dharma transmission In Chan Buddhism, Chan and Zen Buddhism, dharma transmission is a custom in which a person is established as a "successor in an unbroken Lineage (Buddhism), lineage of teachers and disciples, a spiritual 'bloodline' (''kechimyaku'') theoretica ...
and ceremonies known to a Buddhist teacher are necessary. The type of stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decided together with the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type is chosen directly connected with events that have taken place in the area.


Treasury

All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings called ''tsatsa''s in Tibetan fill most of the treasury. Creation of various types of tsatsas is a ceremony itself. Mantras written on paper are rolled into thin rolls and put into small clay stupas. One layer of tsatsas is placed in the treasury, and the empty space between them is filled with dry sand. On the thus created new surface, another layer of tsatsas is made, and so on until the entire space of the treasury is full. The number of tsatsas required to completely fill the treasury depends on its size and the size of the tsatsa. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , i ...
contains approximately 14,000 tsatsas.
Jewellery Jewellery ( UK) or jewelry (U.S.) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes. From a wester ...
and other "precious" objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessary that they be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market price. It is believed that the more objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy of the stupa.


Tree of Life

An important element in every stupa is the "
Tree of Life The tree of life is a fundamental archetype in many of the world's mythological, religious, and philosophical traditions. It is closely related to the concept of the sacred tree.Giovino, Mariana (2007). ''The Assyrian Sacred Tree: A History ...
". This is a wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras; it is placed in the central channel of the stupa. It is positioned during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons connected to the Tree of Life. Together, the participants make their most positive and powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way the stupa is charged, and starts to function.


Benefits

Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive
karmic Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
imprints in the mind. Future benefits from this action result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly benefits will be the result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body, a nice voice, being attractive, bringing joy to others, and having a long and happy life in which one's wishes are quickly fulfilled. On the absolute level, one will also be able quickly to reach
enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...
, the goal of Buddhism. Destroying a stupa, on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar to killing.Article: Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche: ''The Four Thoughts which Turn the Mind from Samsara.'' BUDDHISM TODAY, Vol.5, 1998
Available online
Such an action is said to create massive negative
karmic Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
imprints, leading to serious future problems. It is said this action leaves the mind in a state of paranoia after death has occurred, leading to totally unfortunate rebirths.


Tibetan stupas

Stupas in
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
and the Tibetan influenced regions of the
Himalayas The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...
such as
Bhutan Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
are usually called chorten in English, reflecting the term in the Tibetan language. There are eight different shapes of chortens in
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
, each referring to a major event in the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
's life. The chortens are often made as a set, placed in a row. The Tibetan set differs slightly (by two events) from the Indian set of Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha.


Lotus Blossom Stupa

Also known as "Stupa of Heaped Lotuses" or "Birth of the Sugata Stupa", this stupa refers to the birth of Gautama Buddha. "At birth Buddha took seven steps in each of the four directions"Beer, Robert: ''The Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs'' (2004) Serindia Publications Inc. (east, south, west and north). In each direction lotuses sprang up, symbolizing the brahmavihāras: love, compassion, joy and equanimity. The base of this stupa is circular and has four steps, and it is decorated with lotus-petal designs. Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer to the seven first steps of the Buddha.


Enlightenment Stupa

Also known as the "Stupa of the Conquest of Mara", this stupa symbolizes the 35-year-old Gautama Buddha, Buddha's attainment of enlightenment under the bodhi tree in
Bodh Gaya Bodh Gaya is a religious site and place of pilgrimage associated with the Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Gaya district in the Indian state of Bihar. It is famous as it is the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have attained Enlightenment ( pi, ...
, where he conquered worldly temptations and attacks, manifesting in the form of Mara.


Stupa of Many Doors

This stupa is also known as the "Stupa of Many Gates". After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha taught his first students in a deer park near Sarnath. The series of doors on each side of the steps represents the first teachings: the
Four Noble Truths In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones". Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
, the Six Pāramitās, the Noble Eightfold Path">Pāramitā">Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
, the Six Pāramitās, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Twelve Nidānas.


Stupa of Descent from the God Realm

At 42 years of age, Buddha spent a summer retreat in the Tushita, Tuṣita Heaven where his mother had taken rebirth. In order to repay her kindness he taught the dharma to her rebirth. Local inhabitants built a stupa in
Sankassa Sankissa (also Sankasia, Sankassa and Sankasya) was an ancient city in India. The city came into prominence at the time of Gautama Buddha. According to a Buddhist source, it was thirty leagues from Savatthi.''Dhammapadatthakathā'', iii, 224 Af ...
in order to commemorate this event. This type of stupa is characterized by having a central projection at each side containing a triple ladder or steps.


Stupa of Great Miracles

Also known as the "Stupa of Conquest of the Tirthikas", this stupa refers to various miracles performed by the Buddha when he was 50 years old. Legend claims that he overpowered ''maras'' and heretics by engaging them in intellectual arguments and also by performing miracles. This stupa was raised by the Lichavi kingdom to commemorate the event.


Stupa of Reconciliation

This stupa commemorates the Buddha's resolution of a dispute among the '' sangha''. A stupa in this design was built in the kingdom of
Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...
, where the reconciliation occurred. It has four octagonal steps with equal sides.


Stupa of Complete Victory

This stupa commemorates Buddha's successful prolonging of his life by three months. It has only three steps, which are circular and unadorned.


Stupa of Nirvana

This stupa refers to the ''
parinirvana In Buddhism, ''parinirvana'' (Sanskrit: '; Pali: ') is commonly used to refer to nirvana-after-death, which occurs upon the death of someone who has attained ''nirvana'' during their lifetime. It implies a release from '' '', karma and rebirth a ...
'' or death of the Buddha when he was 80 years old. It symbolizes his complete absorption into the highest state of mind. It is bell-shaped and usually unornamented.


Kalachakra stupa

A ninth kind of stupa exists, the Kalachakra stupa. Its symbolism is not connected to events in the Buddha's life, but instead to the symbolism of the
Kalachakra Tantra ''Kālacakra'' () is a polysemic term in Vajrayana Buddhism that means "wheel of time" or "time cycles". "''Kālacakra''" is also the name of a series of Buddhist texts and a major practice lineage in Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The ta ...
, created to protect against negative energies.


Gallery

File:Stone built Stupa 2.JPG, An early stupa at Guntupalle, probably
Maurya Empire The Maurya Empire, or the Mauryan Empire, was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in the Indian subcontinent based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until 1 ...
, third century BCE File:Sarnath Buddha statue inside a votive stupa.jpg, Buddha statue inside a votive stupa, Sarnath File:SL Anuradhapura asv2020-01 img31 Abhayagiriya Stupa.jpg, Abayagiri Dageba, Sri Lanka File:Potala Palace, former residence of Dalai Lama, 2006.jpg, Chorten near
Potala Palace The Potala Palace is a ''dzong'' fortress in Lhasa, Tibet. It was the winter palace of the Dalai Lamas from 1649 to 1959, has been a museum since then, and a World Heritage Site since 1994. The palace is named after Mount Potalaka, the mythica ...
,
Lhasa Lhasa (; Lhasa dialect: ; bo, text=ལྷ་ས, translation=Place of Gods) is the urban center of the prefecture-level city, prefecture-level Lhasa (prefecture-level city), Lhasa City and the administrative capital of Tibet Autonomous Regio ...
, Tibet File:Miaoyingsi baita.jpg, The white stupa in
Miaoying Temple The Miaoying Temple (), also known as the "White Stupa Temple" (), is a Chinese Buddhist temple on the north side of Fuchengmennei Street in the Xicheng District of Beijing. The temple was a monastery of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and is ...
, China File:Kalachakra_Stupa_in_Karma_Guen,_Spain.jpg, The Kalachakra stupa in Karma Guen, Spain


Cambodia

File:2016 Phnom Penh, Pałac Królewski, Stupa Kanthy Bophy i Phnom Mondop (02).jpg, Stupa of Kantha Bopha File:2016 Phnom Penh, Pałac Królewski, Stupa Króla Suramarith i Królowej Kossomak (01).jpg, Stupa of King Norodom Suramarit File:Pagoda_of_Wat_Phnom.jpg, Main stupa at
Wat Phnom Wat Phnom ( km, វត្តភ្នំ, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ; "Mountain Pagoda") is a Buddhist temple ( wat), a pagoda, that symbolizes the name of Phnom Penh, and a historical site that is part of the Khmer national identity. Wat Phnom has a t ...
2016 Phnom Penh, Wat Botum (18).jpg, Stupa at
Wat Botum Wat Botum ( km, វត្តបទុម, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ; lit. 'Temple of the Lotus Blossoms'), the official name is Wat Botum Watey Reacheveraram ( km, វត្តបទុមវតីរាជវរារាម, link=no) literally means ...
File:Udong 0013.jpg, Stupa at
Oudong ( km, ឧដុង្គ; also romanized as Udong or Odong) is a former town of the post-Angkorian period (1618–1863) situated in present-day ''Phsar Daek'' Commune, Ponhea Lueu District, Kandal Province, Cambodia. Located at the foothill of th ...
File:Golden Stupa.jpg, Golden stupa at Wat Ounalom


Kathmandu, Nepal

File:Roadside stupa. Kathmandu 1979.jpg, Roadside stupa. Kathmandu 1979 File:Swayambhunath 2018.jpg, Swayambhunath File:Boudhanath Stupa 2, Kathmandu, Nepal.jpg, Boudhanath Stupa Kathmandu, Nepal, Kaathe Swayambhu Stupa.jpg,
Kaathe Swyambhu Kaathe Swayambhu Shree Gha Chaitya (Nepali:काठे स्वयम्भु श्री घ: चैत्य) is a miniature replica of Swayambhunath. It was built around 1650AD and is one of the popular Tibetan pilgrimage site in Kathmand ...
File:KATHMANDU NEPAL FEB 2013 (8510699915).jpg, Stupa File:Mahabaudha112.jpg, Mahabaudha File:Tahiti stupa (XV century) on Tahiti Tole square (17823682692).jpg, Tahiti stupa File:Yetkha Stupa.jpg, Yetkha Stupa File:Small stupa in Kathmandu street. 1979.jpg, Small stupa in Kathmandu street


See also

* Ancient stupas of Sri Lanka * Candi * Gorintō *
Great Stupa of Universal Compassion The Great Stupa of Universal Compassion is a Buddhist monument near Bendigo in central Victoria, Australia. The basic idea for building the stupa came from Lama Yeshe and then, after Lama Yeshe's death, from Lama Zopa Rinpoche, who decided to m ...
*
Hōkyōintō A is a Japanese pagoda, so called because it originally contained the .Iwanami Kōjien Japanese dictionary A Chinese variant of the Indian stūpa, it was originally conceived as a cenotaph of the King of Wuyue – Qian Liu. Structure and funct ...
* Kurgan * Kyaung *
Mankiala Stupa The Manikyala Stupa ( ur, ) is a Buddhist stupa near the village of Tope Mankiala, in Pakistan's Punjab province. The stupa was built to commemorate the spot, where according to the Jataka tales, an incarnation of the Buddha called Prince Satt ...
* Ovoo *
Peace Pagoda A Peace Pagoda is a Buddhist stupa; a monument to inspire peace, designed to provide a focus for people of all races and creeds, and to help unite them in their search for world peace. Most, though not all, peace pagodas built since World War II ...
*
Reliquary A reliquary (also referred to as a ''shrine'', by the French term ''châsse'', and historically including ''wikt:phylactery, phylacteries'') is a container for relics. A portable reliquary may be called a ''fereter'', and a chapel in which it i ...
*
Round barrow A round barrow is a type of tumulus and is one of the most common types of archaeological monuments. Although concentrated in Europe, they are found in many parts of the world, probably because of their simple construction and universal purpose. ...
*
Wat A wat ( km, វត្ត, ; lo, ວັດ, ; th, วัด, ; khb, 「ᩅᨯ᩠ᨰ」(waD+Dha); nod, 「ᩅ᩠ᨯ᩶」 (w+Da2)) is a type of Buddhist temple and Hindu temple in Cambodia, Laos, East Shan State, Yunnan, the Southern Provi ...
*
Ziggurat A ziggurat (; Cuneiform: 𒅆𒂍𒉪, Akkadian: ', D-stem of ' 'to protrude, to build high', cognate with other Semitic languages like Hebrew ''zaqar'' (זָקַר) 'protrude') is a type of massive structure built in ancient Mesopotamia. It has ...


References


Sources

* Chandra, Pramod (2008), ''South Asian arts'', Encyclopædia Britannica. * Le Huu Phuoc (2009), ''Buddhist architecture'', Grafikol * Skilling, Peter, Chapter 2 in ''Amaravati: The Art of an Early Buddhist Monument in Context'', Edited by Akira Shimada and Michael Willis, British Museum, 2016
PDF


Further reading

* * Harvey, Peter (1984)
The Symbolism of the Early Stūpa
Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 7 (2), 67-94 * Mitra, D. (1971). ''Buddhist Monuments''. Sahitya Samsad: Calcutta. . * * Snodgrass, Adrian (1992).
The Symbolism of the Stupa
'. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi.


External links


The Stupa Information Page

Boudhanath Stupa at Kathmandu Nepal

The Great Stupa of Universal Compassion, under construction in Bendigo, Victoria, Australia

Stupa at Rigpawiki
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