![Kunstvoll - Alhambra - panoramio](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Kunstvoll_-_Alhambra_-_panoramio.jpg)
Stucco decoration in
Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic ar ...
refers to carved or molded
stucco
Stucco or render is a construction material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and a ...
and
plaster
Plaster is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for Molding (decorative), moulding and casting decorative elements. In English, "plaster" usually means a material used for the interiors of ...
. The terms "stucco" and "plaster" are used almost interchangeably in this context to denote most types of stucco or plaster decoration with slightly varying compositions.
This decoration was mainly used to cover walls and surfaces and the main motifs were those predominant in
Islamic art:
geometric
Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is ca ...
,
arabesque
The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foli ...
(or vegetal), and
calligraphic, as well as three-dimensional
''muqarnas''.
Plaster of gypsum composition was extremely important in
Islamic architectural decoration as the relatively dry climate throughout much of the
Islamic world
The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. In ...
made it easy to use this cheap and versatile material in a variety of spaces.
Stucco decoration was already used in
ancient times in the
region of Iran and the
Greco-Roman
The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were di ...
Mediterranean.
In Islamic architecture, stucco decoration appeared during the
Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
period (late 7th–8th centuries) and underwent further innovations and generalization during the 9th century under the
Abbasids
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
in
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
, at which point it spread further across the
Islamic world
The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. In ...
and was incorporated into regional architectural styles.
Examples of historic carved stucco decoration are found in
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
,
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
,
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
, and
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, among other areas.
It was commonly used in
"Moorish" or western Islamic architecture in the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
(
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus DIN 31635, translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label=Berber languages, Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, ...
) and parts of North Africa (the
Maghreb
The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...
), since at least the
Taifa
The ''taifas'' (singular ''taifa'', from ar, طائفة ''ṭā'ifa'', plural طوائف ''ṭawā'if'', a party, band or faction) were the independent Muslim principalities and kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain), re ...
and
Almoravid
The Almoravid dynasty ( ar, المرابطون, translit=Al-Murābiṭūn, lit=those from the ribats) was an imperial Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire in the 11th century that s ...
periods (11th–12th centuries).
In the Iberian Peninsula it reached a creative pinnacle in Moorish architecture during the
Nasrid dynasty (1238–1492), who built the
Alhambra
The Alhambra (, ; ar, الْحَمْرَاء, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, , ) is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the ...
.
Mudejar architecture also made broad use of such decoration.
The Spanish term ''yesería'' is sometimes used in the context of Islamic and Mudéjar architecture in Spain.
History
Origins and early development
The use of carved stucco has been documented back to ancient times. Stucco decoration was used in
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
,
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
and the
Greco-Roman
The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were di ...
Mediterranean,
though it was most strongly associated with
Iranian architecture
Iranian architecture or Persian architecture (Persian: معمارى ایرانی, ''Memāri e Irāni'') is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least 5,000 BC w ...
under the
Parthians Parthian may be:
Historical
* A demonym "of Parthia", a region of north-eastern of Greater Iran
* Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD)
* Parthian language, a now-extinct Middle Iranian language
* Parthian shot, an archery skill famously employed by ...
and
Sasanians
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...
.
As the
Islamic conquests
The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He estab ...
of the 7th century captured
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
, Iran, and Central Asia and annexed them to the new Islamic empire, the long tradition of carved and painted stucco decoration in these regions was assimilated into early Islamic architecture.
The
Umayyad caliphs (661–750 AD) made use of carved stucco in
their architecture,
although it was of limited scope until the late Umayyad period.
Examples of early 8th century stucco survive at Umayyad sites like
Khirbat al-Mafjar and
Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi
Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi ( ar, قصر الحير الغربي) is a Syrian desert castle or ''qasr'' located 80 km south-west of Palmyra on the Damascus road. The castle is a twin palace of Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi, built by the Umayyad caliph His ...
(whose portal is now at
National Museum of Damascus
The National Museum of Damascus ( ar, الْمَتْحَفُ الْوَطَنِيُّ بِدِمَشْقَ) is a museum in the heart of Damascus, Syria. As the country's national museum as well as its largest, this museum covers the entire range o ...
).
As with other early Islamic sculptural decoration, the carved stucco decoration in the Umayyad period started out with an eclectic mix of styles originating in existing
Classical, early
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
, and
ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq, southeast Turkey, southwest Iran and northeastern Syria), ancient Egypt, ancient Iran ( Elam, ...
ern artistic traditions.
It was only in the 9th century that a distinctively "Islamic" style of stucco decoration emerged.
Under the
Abbasids
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
, based in
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
, stucco decoration developed more abstract motifs, as seen in the 9th-century palaces of
Samarra
Samarra ( ar, سَامَرَّاء, ') is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, north of Baghdad. The city of Samarra was founded by Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutasim for his Turkish professional army ...
. Three styles are distinguished by modern scholars: "style A" consists of vegetal motifs, including
vine
A vine (Latin ''vīnea'' "grapevine", "vineyard", from ''vīnum'' "wine") is any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent (that is, climbing) stems, lianas or runners. The word ''vine'' can also refer to such stems or runners themselv ...
leaves, derived from more traditional Byzantine and Levantine styles; "style B" is a more abstract and stylized version of these motifs; and "style C", also known as the "beveled" style, is entirely abstract, consisting of repeating symmetrical forms of curved lines ending in spirals.
The
Abbasid style became popular throughout the lands of the Abbasid Caliphate and is found as far as
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
(e.g.
Mosque of Haji Piyada in
Balkh
), named for its green-tiled ''Gonbad'' ( prs, گُنبَد, dome), in July 2001
, pushpin_map=Afghanistan#Bactria#West Asia
, pushpin_relief=yes
, pushpin_label_position=bottom
, pushpin_mapsize=300
, pushpin_map_caption=Location in Afghanistan ...
) and
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
(e.g.
Ibn Tulun Mosque
The Mosque of Ibn Tulun ( ar, مسجد إبن طولون, Masjid Ibn Ṭūlūn) is located in Cairo, Egypt. It is one of the oldest mosques in Egypt as well as the whole of Africa surviving in its full original form, and is the largest mosque in ...
).
Regionalization
As the Abbasid realm fragmented in the following centuries, architectural styles became increasingly regionalized.
Towards the 11th century, ''
muqarnas'', a technique of three-dimensional geometric sculpting often compared to "stalactites", is attested across many parts of the Islamic world, often carved from stucco. It grew more popular from the 12th century onward.
Eastern Islamic lands
![Irnt038-Isfahan-Meczet Piątkowy](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Irnt038-Isfahan-Meczet_Pi%C4%85tkowy.jpg)
In the
Greater Iranian region, a fairly distinctive style evolved from Abbasid models, employing stucco carved in
high relief, especially in the decoration of
mihrab
Mihrab ( ar, محراب, ', pl. ') is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the ''qibla'', the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a ''mihrab'' appears is thus the "qibla w ...
s during the periods of
Seljuk Seljuk or Saljuq (سلجوق) may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* Seljuk (warlord) (di ...
and
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
domination.
Among the most notable examples are the mihrab of
Friday Mosque of Ardistan (c. 1135 or 1160),
the Ilkhanid mihrab at the
Great Mosque of Isfahan (1310),
and the mihrab of the
Pir i-Bakran Mausoleum (early 14th century).
An earlier Mesopotamian tradition of muqarnas domes, as seen in the
Imam ad-Dur Shrine near Samarra (1085–1090), was also passed on to Iran, with an important early example being the Tomb of 'Abd al-Samad at
Natanz (1307–1308).
The Iranian fashion of stucco decoration spread to other nearby regions. In
Indo-Islamic architecture
Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and for Islamic patrons and purposes. Despite an initial Arab presence in Sindh, the development of Indo-Islamic architecture began in earnest with the establ ...
(in the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
) it was commonly either sculpted or used to apply painted decoration, or both, although its importance declined in the mid-16th century. In the
Deccan, stucco was often used to create round architectural medallions with plant motifs.
In Iran itself, high relief stucco carving grew less popular during the 15th century but then underwent a revival at the beginning of the 17th century, under the
Safavids, when it was used in palace architecture.
Egypt
![Madrasa Al Nassir Ibn Qalawun 02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Madrasa_Al_Nassir_Ibn_Qalawun_02.jpg)
Fine stucco carving was still employed in Egypt during the
Fatimid period (10th to 12th centuries). The earlier Samarra styles evolved to incorporate more naturalistic forms. In carved Arabic inscriptions, for example, flowers and leaves were added to embellish the letters. One of the finest examples from this period is the mihrab of the
al-Juyushi Mosque.
After this period, stucco decoration became less important and only occasional examples are attested under
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
rule, most of it in
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
.
While it was common enough under the
Bahri Mamluks (13th to 14th centuries), it was largely supplanted by other forms of decoration afterwards.
The existing stucco examples from this period are nonetheless of high quality, as seen in the mihrab of the
Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad, dated to 1304.
This monument also appears to demonstrate the influence or presence of craftsmen from other regions. The style of stucco decoration around the mihrab, for example, is reminiscent of Iranian stucco work in the style of
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the List of largest cities of Iran, sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quri Chay, Quru River valley in Iran's historic Aze ...
under the contemporary
Ilkhanids.
The lavish stucco decoration of the madrasa's minaret, on the other hand, appears to involve contemporary Maghrebi styles and craftsmanship alongside local motifs.
Stucco decoration underwent a brief revival during the reign of
Qaytbay
Sultan Abu Al-Nasr Sayf ad-Din Al-Ashraf Qaitbay ( ar, السلطان أبو النصر سيف الدين الأشرف قايتباي) (c. 1416/14187 August 1496) was the eighteenth Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt from 872 to 901 A.H. (1468–149 ...
(r. 1468–1496), when it was used again in interior decoration.
Western Islamic lands
![Al-attarine madrasa decoration detail DSCF3687](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Al-attarine_madrasa_decoration_detail_DSCF3687.jpg)
The
Umayyad conquest of the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
in the 8th century brought Islam to this region, which subsequently became known as
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus DIN 31635, translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label=Berber languages, Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, ...
in Arabic. The establishment of a new Umayyad dynasty in
Córdoba after 756, in the form of the
Emirate of Córdoba
The Emirate of Córdoba ( ar, إمارة قرطبة, ) was a medieval Islamic kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. Its founding in the mid-eighth century would mark the beginning of seven hundred years of Muslim rule in what is now Spain and Port ...
(and the
Caliphate of Córdoba
The Caliphate of Córdoba ( ar, خلافة قرطبة; transliterated ''Khilāfat Qurṭuba''), also known as the Cordoban Caliphate was an Islamic state ruled by the Umayyad dynasty from 929 to 1031. Its territory comprised Iberia and parts o ...
after 929), led to the development of a distinctive style of
Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic ar ...
culminating in architectural masterpieces such as the
Great Mosque of Córdoba
Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements
* Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size
* Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent
People
* List of people known as "the Great"
*Artel Great (born ...
. This style, popularly known as
"Moorish" architecture, was also influenced by other Islamic architectural traditions further east. Archeological evidence near
Kairouan in
Tunisia
)
, image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa
, image_map2 =
, capital = Tunis
, largest_city = capital
, ...
and
Sedrata
Sedrata (Berber: Isedraten, ar, سدراتة) is a municipality and large city in Souk Ahras Province, Algeria, capital of Sedrata District. It has a population of 110.213 as of the 2019 census, which gives it 11 seats in the PMA. Its municipal ...
in
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
indicate that the Abbasid style of carved stucco was also introduced to the region of
Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya ( '), also known as al-Maghrib al-Adna ( ar, المغرب الأدنى), was a medieval historical region comprising today's Tunisia and eastern Algeria, and Tripolitania (today's western Libya). It included all of what had previously ...
.
Initially, however, the Abbasid style had little influence on art in al-Andalus, where stucco began to be used for decoration in the later half of the 10th century.
The western Islamic architectural tradition continued to evolve over the subsequent ''
Taifa
The ''taifas'' (singular ''taifa'', from ar, طائفة ''ṭā'ifa'', plural طوائف ''ṭawā'if'', a party, band or faction) were the independent Muslim principalities and kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain), re ...
s'' period (11th century) and under the rule of
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
n empires, the
Almoravids
The Almoravid dynasty ( ar, المرابطون, translit=Al-Murābiṭūn, lit=those from the ribats) was an imperial Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire in the 11th century that ...
and the
Almohads
The Almohad Caliphate (; ar, خِلَافَةُ ٱلْمُوَحِّدِينَ or or from ar, ٱلْمُوَحِّدُونَ, translit=al-Muwaḥḥidūn, lit=those who profess the unity of God) was a North African Berber Muslim empire fo ...
(11th to 13th centuries).
Stucco became the most common medium of decoration in the 11th century.
It was carved in high relief during the ''Taifas'' period (e.g.
Aljafería Palace in
Zaragoza
Zaragoza, also known in English as Saragossa,''Encyclopædia Britannica'"Zaragoza (conventional Saragossa)" is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributari ...
) and during the Almoravid period (e.g.
Qubba al-Barudiyyin in
Marrakesh
Marrakesh or Marrakech ( or ; ar, مراكش, murrākuš, ; ber, ⵎⵕⵕⴰⴽⵛ, translit=mṛṛakc}) is the fourth largest city in the Kingdom of Morocco. It is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco and is the capital of the Marrakes ...
).
The elaborate decorative style of the Almoravids was initially restrained under their successors, the Almohads, whose monuments attest to a more subdued but elegant decoration. After them, however, architectural decoration reached new heights of lavishness in Al-Andalus and the western Maghreb.
The fashion evolved to favour stucco carved in shallow relief and to cover large surfaces along upper walls and under vaults.
Starting in the 13th century, the
Nasrid dynasty in
Granada
Granada (,, DIN 31635, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the fo ...
constructed the palace complex known today as the
Alhambra
The Alhambra (, ; ar, الْحَمْرَاء, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, , ) is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the ...
, which is replete with rich stucco decoration. Stucco decoration was also used profusely in the monuments of the
Marinid dynasty
The Marinid Sultanate was a Berber Muslim empire from the mid-13th to the 15th century which controlled present-day Morocco and, intermittently, other parts of North Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) and of the southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain) a ...
in North Africa, particularly in
madrasa
Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , pl. , ) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whether for elementary instruction or higher learning. The word is variously transliterated '' ...
s, a number of which have survived in
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to ...
.
The
al-'Attarin Madrasa in Fez, for example, built by the Marinids between 1323 and 1325, is one of the finest examples of this decoration.
Comparable stucco decoration has also been found in the
former palace of the
Zayyanids
The Zayyanid dynasty ( ar, زيانيون, ''Ziyānyūn'') or Abd al-Wadids ( ar, بنو عبد الواد, ''Bānu ʿabd āl-Wād'') was a Berber Zenata dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Tlemcen, mainly in modern Algeria centered on the town of ...
in
Tlemcen
Tlemcen (; ar, تلمسان, translit=Tilimsān) is the second-largest city in northwestern Algeria after Oran, and capital of the Tlemcen Province. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries, which it exports through the por ...
, Algeria.
= Mudéjar decoration in Christian Spain
=
As Christian kingdoms progressively
conquered the Iberian Peninsula, they continued to use the Islamic style, or
"Mudéjar" style, in many of their new buildings. Moorish or Islamic-style plasterwork is found, for example, in 14th-century
Castilian architecture such as the palace of
Pedro I in the
Alcázar of Seville
The Royal Alcázars of Seville ( es, Reales Alcázares de Sevilla), historically known as al-Qasr al-Muriq (, ''The Verdant Palace'') and commonly known as the Alcázar of Seville (), is a royal palace in Seville, Spain, built for the Christian ...
, the
Royal Convent of Santa Clara in
Tordesillas (former palace of
Alfonso XI), and the Jewish
Synagogue of El Tránsito
The Synagogue of El Tránsito (), also known as the Synagogue of Samuel ha-Levi or Halevi, is a historic synagogue, church, and Sephardic museum in Toledo, Spain. Designed by master mason Don Meir (Mayr) Abdeil, it was built as an annex of the pala ...
in
Toledo
Toledo most commonly refers to:
* Toledo, Spain, a city in Spain
* Province of Toledo, Spain
* Toledo, Ohio, a city in the United States
Toledo may also refer to:
Places Belize
* Toledo District
* Toledo Settlement
Bolivia
* Toledo, Orur ...
. In these examples, Christian inscriptions and Castilian
heraldry
Heraldry is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings (known as armory), as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree. Armory, the best-known branch ...
are also included against backgrounds of traditional Islamic arabesque and geometric motifs.
An important tradition of decorative plasterwork grew in Toledo, which fell to Castilian control in 1085. Many examples of Mudéjar plasterwork throughout Castile can be attributed to craftsmen from this city. From the 11th century to the mid-14th century, such plasterwork continued to be dominated by motifs of Islamic origin that are similar to contemporary Almoravid, Almohad, or Nasrid art. After the mid-14th century, other motifs were added to this repertoire, such as vine and oak leaves inspired by
Gothic art and, later, figures of people and animals.
Motifs and styles
Islamic and Mujédar stucco decoration followed the main types of ornamentation in Islamic art:
geometric
Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is ca ...
,
arabesque
The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foli ...
or vegetal, and
calligraphic motifs.
Three-dimensional ''muqarnas'' was often also carved in stucco,
most typically found as transitional elements on vaults, domes, capitals, friezes, and doorways.
This motif consisted of interlocking niches projected in many levels one over the other, forming geometric patterns when seen from below.
Walls were covered with the remaining ornamental types, intermixed and arranged for visual appeal and impact.
Stucco was sometimes used for murals and painted decoration in some regions and periods,
a technique that was popular in Iran for example.
Figural motifs (such as animals or human forms) are also attested in stucco carving, though they were not in general usage across the Islamic world.
Initially, elaborately carved three-dimensional decoration was found in some palaces during the Umayyad period, while during the Abbasid period the carving became shallower and more flattened.
High relief stucco sculpting was still notably employed later to decorate the mihrabs of mosques in medieval Iran, using arabesques of stems and leaves on multiple levels carved in depth.
Ornate window
grilles in Islamic architecture were also commonly carved from stucco and filled with
stained glass
Stained glass is coloured glass as a material or works created from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches and other significant religious buildings. Although tradition ...
.
More exceptionally, some mosques in Morocco and Algeria contained decorative domes made of stucco with intricately carved arabesques that were pierced to allow light to pass through, as in the
Great Mosque of Tlemcen
The Great Mosque of Tlemcen ( ar, الجامع الكبير لتلمسان, ''el-Jemaa el-Kebir litilimcen'') is a major historic mosque in Tlemcen, Algeria. It was founded and first built in 1082 but modified and embellished several times afterw ...
(built and decorated under the Almoravids in the early 12th century).
In Nasrid and Mudéjar architecture, the lower section or
dado section of walls was typically covered in
mosaic
A mosaic is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place by plaster/mortar, and covering a surface. Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and were particularly pop ...
tile (
''zellij''), whereas carved stucco covered the remaining wall above the dado with arabesques, geometric patterns, and epigraphic motifs. A similar configuration predominated in Marinid architecture.
File:Alhambra wall 10 (6859744634).jpg, Star-like polygonal geometric motif (with arabesque details) in stucco wall decoration at the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid
The Nasrid dynasty ( ar, بنو نصر ''banū Naṣr'' or ''banū al-Aḥmar''; Spanish: ''Nazarí'') was the last Muslim dynasty in the Iberian Peninsula, ruling the Emirate of Granada from 1230 until 1492. Its members claimed to be of Ara ...
)
File:Ardestan-mosque-3.jpg, Arabesque (vegetal) motifs in carved stucco on the mihrab
Mihrab ( ar, محراب, ', pl. ') is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the ''qibla'', the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a ''mihrab'' appears is thus the "qibla w ...
of the Friday Mosque of Ardistan, Iran (12th century, Seljuk Seljuk or Saljuq (سلجوق) may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* Seljuk (warlord) (di ...
)
File:Fes DSC03586 Morocco (15256607226).jpg, Calligraphic frieze in carved stucco at the Al-'Attarin Madrasa in Fez (14th century, Marinid)
File:Doorway - Patio de los Leones - Alhambra.JPG, Stucco "Stalactite"-style muqarnas in the Palace of the Lions at the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid)
File:Alhambra (51949919755).jpg, Full muqarnas dome in stucco in the Palace of the Lions at the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid)
File:Damascus National Museum Qasr al-Heir al-Gharbi (gateway) 7749.jpg, Stucco-decorated gate of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi
Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi ( ar, قصر الحير الغربي) is a Syrian desert castle or ''qasr'' located 80 km south-west of Palmyra on the Damascus road. The castle is a twin palace of Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi, built by the Umayyad caliph His ...
(early 8th century, Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
), reconstructed at the National Museum of Damascus
The National Museum of Damascus ( ar, الْمَتْحَفُ الْوَطَنِيُّ بِدِمَشْقَ) is a museum in the heart of Damascus, Syria. As the country's national museum as well as its largest, this museum covers the entire range o ...
File:Soffit of arch with geometric stucco design, Mosque of Ibn Tulun, Cairo, 876-79 (4).jpg, Abbasid-style decoration in the arches of the Ibn Tulun Mosque
The Mosque of Ibn Tulun ( ar, مسجد إبن طولون, Masjid Ibn Ṭūlūn) is located in Cairo, Egypt. It is one of the oldest mosques in Egypt as well as the whole of Africa surviving in its full original form, and is the largest mosque in ...
in Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
, Egypt (9th century)
File:Stucco window from the mosque of al-Salih Tala'i in Cairo, Fatimid, 1160; Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo (2).jpg, Stucco grille window from the al-Salih Tala'i Mosque
The Mosque of al-Salih Tala'i ( ar, مسجد الصالح طلائع) is a late Fatimid-era mosque built by the vizier Tala'i ibn Ruzzik in 1160. It is located south of Bab Zuweila, just outside the southern entrance to the old walled city of Cairo ...
in Cairo (12th century, Fatimid), with arabesque and Kufic Arabic motifs
File:Bou inania DSCF4638.jpg, Stucco wall decoration and stucco grille windows in the Bou Inania Madrasa in Fez (14th century, Marinid)
File:Alhambra 16 (29345436978).jpg, ''Sebka
''Sebka'' () refers to a type of decorative motif used in western Islamic ("Moorish") architecture and Mudéjar architecture.
History and description
Various types of interlacing rhombus-like motifs are heavily featured on the surfaces of ...
'', arabesque, and epigraphic motifs on the walls of the Hall of Ambassadors in the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid)
File:Akbar's Tomb 29.jpg, Painted and carved plaster decoration inside Akbar's Tomb
Akbar's tomb is the tomb of the Mughal emperor Akbar. It was built in 1605–1613 by his son, Jahangir and is situated on 119 acres of grounds in Sikandra, a sub of Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Location
It is located at Sikandra, in the suburb ...
in Agra
Agra (, ) is a city on the banks of the Yamuna river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, about south-east of the national capital New Delhi and 330 km west of the state capital Lucknow. With a population of roughly 1.6 million, Agra is ...
, India (early 17th century, Mughal
Mughal or Moghul may refer to:
Related to the Mughal Empire
* Mughal Empire of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries
* Mughal dynasty
* Mughal emperors
* Mughal people, a social group of Central and South Asia
* Mughal architecture
* Mug ...
)
Material
In the context of Islamic architecture, the terms "stucco" and "plaster" are used almost interchangeably to denote most types of stucco or plaster decoration with varying compositions. In its most flexible usage, it can even denote a material made from a mixture of mud and
clay
Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4).
Clays develop plasticity when wet, due to a molecular film of water surrounding the clay par ...
.
In more precise terms, however, "stucco" is a substance based on
lime
Lime commonly refers to:
* Lime (fruit), a green citrus fruit
* Lime (material), inorganic materials containing calcium, usually calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide
* Lime (color), a color between yellow and green
Lime may also refer to:
Botany ...
which is harder and sets more slowly, while "plaster" is a substance based on
gypsum
Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula . It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, blackboard or sidewalk chalk, and drywall. ...
which is softer and sets more quickly.
The mixture could consist of pure gypsum and dissolved glue or of lime mixed with powdered marble or eggshell.
In art history, the
Spanish term yesería is most often associated with carved stucco or plaster on the Iberian peninsula and Latin America. In historic Nasrid architecture, the composition and color of stucco varied depending upon the purity of gypsum stone and additives used to bestow properties to the mixtures such as hardness, setting time, and binding.
The chemical formula for gypsum is CaSO
4•2H
2O. Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral. The combination of abundant source material, ease of preparation and handling, wide adaptability for use, and quick setting time accounted for stucco's widespread use.
In the 19th century, plaster of Paris was used in restoration and redecoration at later dates over the original stucco layer.
Technique
Throughout the Islamic world, stucco was smoothed and the decorative designs were marked out with a pointed instrument. The carving was then done with iron tools while the material was still slightly wet. Evidence of this technique has been found in unfinished stucco decoration at Khirbat al-Mafjar (8th century) near
Jericho
Jericho ( ; ar, أريحا ; he, יְרִיחוֹ ) is a Palestinian city in the West Bank. It is located in the Jordan Valley, with the Jordan River to the east and Jerusalem to the west. It is the administrative seat of the Jericho Gove ...
and in the interior of the
Kutubiyya Mosque's minaret in Marrakesh (12th century).
Alternatively, the stucco could be cast from molds.
In Iran, gypsum mixtures were initially stirred continuously until they lost their ability to set rapidly, and then this mixture was applied in several coats, taking up to 48 hours before setting.
Nasrid stucco
![Granada Palacios Nazaries 4](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Granada_Palacios_Nazaries_4.jpg)
In Nasrid art, the two basic techniques for creating stucco decoration were carving in situ and casting molds which were then attached to the structure. In situ carving was the most common method initially, but towards the early 14th century, during the reign of
Muhammad III, molding became more standard.
Hand carving was accomplished by initially tracing design onto applied stucco layer and then carving using simple hand tools
of iron.
[ Casting allowed for more elaborate and intricate designs that could be repeated, creating systematic stylization.] Molds were commonly made from wood or plaster; the item was often cast in clay, then coated in gesso.After molded pieces were attached to the walls, they were painted or whitewashed as needed. Analysis of the original stuccos in the Alhambra show that Nasrid artisans were well versed in the properties of stucco and used different gypsum mixtures for carving and casting. For example, additives to slow drying and setting were used on stucco mixtures that were carved in place to allow artisans more time to complete their work.
Stucco was often polychrome
Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors.
Ancient Egypt
Colossal statu ...
d. Age and weather, along with centuries of redecoration and restoration have significantly altered the original appearance of most stucco that date to the Nasrid period. Current advances in analytical instrumentation that allows for in situ analysis of the stucco are yielding information about original pigments and techniques. A further example of Nasrid artisans skill with stucco was their use of high purity gypsum coating that served both as a sealant and a preparatory stage for subsequent painting or gilding on the original stucco layer. The Alhambra has been the focus of recent investigations. The primary colors used on the stucco of the Alhambra were red, blue, green, golden, and black. Spectroscopic analysis of pigments attributed to original decoration of the Alhambra show cinnabar as the pigment used for red color. Lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color.
As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, ...
, a highly prized and expensive pigment, accounts for the blue. Malachite
Malachite is a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the formula Cu2CO3(OH)2. This opaque, green-banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often forms botryoidal, fibrous, or stalagmitic masses, in fractures ...
has been detected as the source of the green hues. Carbon black was used for black pigment. Gilding, especially on the muqarnas, has been noted. The application of both pigment and gilding to these geometrically complex ceilings showed their knowledge and skill in optical allusion and spatial harmony. Investigations have focused on the muqarnas ornamented ceiling in the Hall of Kings in the Alhambra. Data is revealing the expansive use of two of the most expensive materials on this ceiling, lapis lazuli and gold leaf revealing the original dazzling opulence of the space.
See also
* Pargetting
Pargeting (or sometimes pargetting) is a decorative or waterproofing plastering applied to building walls. The term, if not the practice, is particularly associated with the English counties of Suffolk and Essex. In the neighbouring county of Nor ...
for another tradition of decorative plasterwork
* Tadelakt
* Qadad
References
External links
Nasrid Plasterwork: Symbolism, Materials & Techniques
(info on 'naqch hadîda' technique)
{{Architecture of Spain
Arabic art
Spanish art
Sculpture techniques
Arabic architecture
Islamic architectural elements
Islamic art
Plaster sculptures