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The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry; ''Fragaria × ananassa'') is a widely grown hybrid species of the genus ''
Fragaria ''Fragaria'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. The most common strawberries grown com ...
'', collectively known as the strawberries, which are cultivated worldwide for their fruit. The fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red color, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in large quantities, either fresh or in such prepared foods as jam, juice,
pie A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing that contains a filling of various sweet or savoury ingredients. Sweet pies may be filled with fruit (as in an apple pie), nuts ( pecan pie), brown sugar ( sugar pie), swe ...
s, ice cream,
milkshake A milkshake (sometimes simply called a shake) is a sweet beverage made by blending milk, ice cream, and flavorings or sweeteners such as butterscotch, caramel sauce, chocolate syrup, fruit syrup, or whole fruit into a thick, sweet, cold mixture ...
s, and chocolates. Artificial strawberry flavorings and aromas are also widely used in products such as candy, soap, lip gloss, perfume, and many others. The garden strawberry was first bred in Brittany, France, in the 1750s via a cross of '' Fragaria virginiana'' from eastern North America and '' Fragaria chiloensis'', which was brought from Chile by Amédée-François Frézier in 1714. Cultivars of ''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' have replaced, in commercial production, the woodland strawberry (''
Fragaria vesca ''Fragaria vesca'', commonly called the wild strawberry, woodland strawberry, Alpine strawberry, Carpathian strawberry or European strawberry, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the rose family that grows naturally throughout much of the Northe ...
''), which was the first strawberry species cultivated in the early 17th century. The strawberry is not, from a botanical point of view, a
berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, raspb ...
. Technically, it is an
aggregate Aggregate or aggregates may refer to: Computing and mathematics * collection of objects that are bound together by a root entity, otherwise known as an aggregate root. The aggregate root guarantees the consistency of changes being made within the ...
accessory fruit, meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's ovaries but from the
receptacle Receptacle may refer to: Biology * Receptacle (botany), a plant anatomical part * Seminal receptacle, a sperm storage site in some insects Electrical engineering * Automobile auxiliary power outlet, formerly known as ''cigarette lighter recep ...
that holds the ovaries.Esau, K. (1977). ''Anatomy of seed plants''. John Wiley and Sons, New York. . Each apparent "seed" (
achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower, with a seed inside it. In 2019, world production of strawberries was nine million tons, led by China with 40% of the total.


History

The first garden strawberry was grown in Brittany, France, during the late 18th century. Prior to this, wild strawberries and cultivated selections from wild strawberry species were the common source of the fruit. The strawberry fruit was mentioned in ancient Roman literature in reference to its medicinal use. The French began taking the strawberry from the forest to their gardens for harvest in the 14th century. Charles V, France's king from 1364 to 1380, had 1,200 strawberry plants in his royal garden. In the early 15th century western European monks were using the wild strawberry in their illuminated manuscripts. The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures. The entire strawberry plant was used to treat depressive illnesses. By the 16th century, references of cultivation of the strawberry became more common. People began using it for its supposed medicinal properties and botanists began naming the different species. In England the demand for regular strawberry farming had increased by the mid-16th century. The combination of strawberries and cream was created by Thomas Wolsey in the court of King
Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disa ...
. Instructions for growing and harvesting strawberries showed up in writing in 1578. By the end of the 16th century three European species had been cited: ''F. vesca'', ''F. moschata'', and ''F. viridis''. The garden strawberry was transplanted from the forests and then the plants would be propagated asexually by cutting off the runners. Two subspecies of ''F. vesca'' were identified: ''F. sylvestris alba'' and ''F. sylvestris semperflorens''. The introduction of ''F. virginiana'' from eastern North America to Europe in the 17th century is an important part of history because it is one of the two species that gave rise to the modern strawberry. The new species gradually spread through the continent and did not become completely appreciated until the end of the 18th century. A French excursion journeyed to Chile in 1712, which led to the introduction of a strawberry plant with female flowers that resulted in the common strawberry. The Mapuche and Huilliche Indians of Chile cultivated the female strawberry species until 1551, when the Spanish came to conquer the land. In 1765, a European explorer recorded the cultivation of ''F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry. At first introduction to Europe, the plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit. French gardeners in Brest and
Cherbourg Cherbourg (; , , ), nrf, Chèrbourg, ) is a former commune and subprefecture located at the northern end of the Cotentin peninsula in the northwestern French department of Manche. It was merged into the commune of Cherbourg-Octeville on 28 Feb ...
around the mid-18th century first noticed that when ''F. moschata'' and ''F. virginiana'' were planted in between rows of ''F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry would bear abundant and unusually large fruits. Soon after, Antoine Nicolas Duchesne began to study the breeding of strawberries and made several discoveries crucial to the science of plant breeding, such as the sexual reproduction of the strawberry which he published in 1766. Duchesne discovered that the female ''F. chiloensis'' plants could only be pollinated by male ''F. moschata'' or ''F. virginiana'' plants. This is when the Europeans became aware that plants had the ability to produce male-only or female-only flowers. Duchesne determined ''F. ananassa'' to be a hybrid of ''F. chiloensis'' and ''F. virginiana''. ''F. ananassa'', which produces large fruits, is so named because it resembles the pineapple in smell, taste and berry shape. In England, many varieties of ''F. ananassa'' were produced, and they form the basis of modern varieties of strawberries currently cultivated and consumed. Further breeding were also conducted in Europe and America to improve the hardiness, disease resistance, size, and taste.


Description and growth

Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit. Traditionally, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "ever-bearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season. One plant throughout a season may produce 50 to 60 times or roughly once every three days. Research published in 2001 showed that strawberries actually occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These refer to the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of
photoperiod Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of night or a dark period. It occurs in plants and animals. Plant photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses of plants to the relative lengths of light a ...
that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod.


Cultivation

Strawberry cultivars vary widely in size, color, flavor, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant. On average, a strawberry has about 200 seeds on its external membrane. Some vary in foliage, and some vary materially in the relative development of their sexual organs. In most cases, the flowers appear hermaphroditic in structure, but function as either male or female. For purposes of commercial production, plants are propagated from
runners Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other animals to move rapidly on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by an aerial phase in which all feet are above the ground (though there are exceptions). This is ...
and, in general, distributed as either bare root plants or plugs. Cultivation follows one of two general models—annual plasticulture, or a perennial system of matted rows or mounds. Greenhouses produce a small amount of strawberries during the off season. The bulk of modern commercial production uses the plasticulture system. In this method, raised beds are formed each year, fumigated, and covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants, usually obtained from northern nurseries, are planted through holes punched in this covering, and irrigation tubing is run underneath. Runners are removed from the plants as they appear, to encourage the plants to put most of their energy into fruit development. After harvesting, the plastic is removed and the plants are plowed into the ground. Strawberry plants produce more and better fruit when they are young. After a year or two, they decline. Replacing them annually improves yields and enables denser planting. However, this necessitates a longer growing season, for the plants to establish themselves. It also costs more to annually purchase plants, form new mounds, and cover them with (new) plastic. The other major method retains plants for multiple years. This is most common in colder climates. The plants are grown in rows or on mounds. This method requires lower investment and lower maintenance, overall. Yields are typically lower than in plasticulture. Another method uses a compost sock. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more
flavonoid Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans. Chemically, flavonoids ...
s,
anthocyanin Anthocyanins (), also called anthocyans, are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart gave the name Anthokyan to a chemical compo ...
s,
fructose Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a Ketose, ketonic monosaccharide, simple sugar found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galacto ...
, glucose,
sucrose Sucrose, a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of white sugar. It has the molecular formula . For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined ...
, malic acid, and citric acid than fruit produced in the black plastic mulch or matted row systems. Similar results in an earlier study conducted by USDA confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars. Strawberries may also be propagated by seed, though this is primarily a hobby activity, and is not widely practiced commercially. A few seed-propagated cultivars have been developed for home use, and research into growing from seed commercially is ongoing. Seeds (
achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
s) are acquired either via commercial seed suppliers, or by collecting and saving them from the fruit. Strawberries can also be grown indoors in strawberry pots. Strawberries won't grow indoors in winter unless aided by a combination of blue and red LED lights. In southern lands, such as Florida, winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November. The Kashubian strawberry (''Truskawka kaszubska'' or ''Kaszëbskô malëna'') is the first Polish fruit to be given commercial protection under EU law. It is produced in Kartuzy, Kościerzyna and Bytów counties and in the municipalities of Przywidz, Wejherowo, Luzino, Szemud, Linia, Łęczyce and Cewice in Kashubia. Only the following varieties may be sold as ''kaszëbskô malëna'': Senga Sengana, Elsanta, Honeoye that have been graded as Extra or Class I. File:Dülmen, Kirchspiel, Erdbeerfeld -- 2015 -- 6492-6.jpg, Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany File:Plasticulture.jpg, alt=A large strawberry field with plastic covering the earth around the strawberry plants., A field using the plasticulture method


Manuring and harvesting

Most strawberry plants are now fed with artificial fertilizers, both before and after harvesting, and often before planting in plasticulture. To maintain top quality, berries are harvested at least every other day. The berries are picked with the caps still attached and with at least half an inch of stem left. Strawberries need to remain on the plant to fully ripen because they do not continue to ripen after being picked. Rotted and overripe berries are removed to minimize insect and disease problems. The berries do not get washed until just before consumption. Soil test information and plant analysis results are used to determine fertility practices. Nitrogen fertilizer is needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilized for top yields. To provide more organic matter, a cover crop of wheat or rye is planted in the winter before planting the strawberries. Strawberries prefer a pH from 5.5 to 6.5, so lime is usually not applied. The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time. The delicate strawberries are still harvested by hand. Grading and packing often occurs in the field, rather than in a processing facility. In large operations, strawberries are cleaned by means of water streams and shaking conveyor belts.


Pests

Around 200 species of
pests PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
are known to attack strawberries both directly and indirectly. These pests include
slug Slug, or land slug, is a common name for any apparently shell-less terrestrial gastropod mollusc. The word ''slug'' is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell, a very reduced shell, or only a smal ...
s, moths, fruit flies, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, mites, aphids, and others. The caterpillars of a number of species of
Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
feed on strawberry plants. For example, the ghost moth is known to be a pest of the strawberry plant. The strawberry aphid, '' Chaetosiphon fragaefolii'', is a bug species found in the United States (Arizona), Argentina and Chile. It is a vector of the
strawberry mild yellow-edge virus Strawberry mild yellow-edge virus (SMYEV) is a pathogenic plant virus. Transmission The virus is transmitted by aphid species in the genus '' Chaetosiphon'', mainly '' C. fragaefolii'', '' C. thomasi'', ''C. thomasi jacobi''. The virus cannot b ...
. The amounts of
pesticides Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and lampric ...
required for
industrial production Industrial production is a measure of output of the industrial sector of the economy. The industrial sector includes manufacturing, mining, and utilities. Although these sectors contribute only a small portion of gross domestic product (GDP), the ...
of strawberries ( in California per acre) have led to the strawberry leading the list of EWG's "Dirty Dozen" of pesticide-contaminated produce.


Diseases

Strawberry plants can fall victim to a number of diseases, especially when subjected to stress. The leaves may be infected by powdery mildew, leaf spot (caused by the fungus ''Sphaerella fragariae''),
leaf blight Blight refers to a specific symptom affecting plants in response to infection by a pathogenic organism. Description Blight is a rapid and complete chlorosis, browning, then death of plant tissues such as leaves, branches, twigs, or floral org ...
(caused by the fungus ''
Phomopsis obscurans ''Phomopsis obscurans'' is a common fungus found in strawberry plants, which causes the disease of leaf blight. Common symptoms caused by the pathogen begin as small circular reddish-purple spots and enlarge to form V-shaped lesions that follow t ...
''), and by a variety of slime molds. The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele, verticillium wilt, black root rot, and
nematode The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-Parasitism, parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhab ...
s. The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold ('' Botrytis cinerea''), rhizopus rot, and leather rot. To prevent root-rotting, strawberries should be planted every four to five years in a new bed, at a different site. The , '' AtNPR1'', confers ''A. thaliana''s
broad-spectrum resistance Plant disease resistance protects plants from pathogens in two ways: by pre-formed structures and chemicals, and by infection-induced responses of the immune system. Relative to a susceptible plant, disease resistance is the reduction of pathoge ...
when transexpressed in ''F. ananassa''. This resistance includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot. A 1997 study assessed many and found all effective against gray mold (''B. cinerea''). Both Tribute and
Chandler Chandler or The Chandler may refer to: * Chandler (occupation), originally head of the medieval household office responsible for candles, now a person who makes or sells candles * Ship chandler, a dealer in supplies or equipment for ships Arts ...
were tested and benefited from the treatments, although there are large differences between the substance x variety effects. Strawberry
metabolizes Metabolism (, from el, μεταβολή ''metabolē'', "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cell ...
these volatiles, and does so more rapidly than either blackberry or grape. The plants can also develop disease from temperature extremes during winter. Watering strawberry roots, and not the leaves, is preferred as moisture on leaves encourages fungal growth. Strawberries may also often appear conjoined together or deformed due to poor pollination.


Domestic cultivation

Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous cultivars have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes. The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's
Award of Garden Merit The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established annual award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions. History The Award of Garden Merit ...
:


Production

In 2020, world production of strawberries was 8.9 million tonnes, led by China with 38% of the total, and the United States and Egypt as other significant producers (see table). Due the relatively fragile nature of the strawberry, approximately 35 percent of the $2.2 billion United States crop was spoiled in 2020. This led to an Idaho company planning to launch gene-edited strawberries in the near future in an effort to make them more durable and hardier. In the U.S. it costs growers around $35,000 per acre to plant and $35,000 per acre to harvest strawberries now, and more durable berries might reduce the rate of spoilage.


Marketing

In the United States in 2017, the collective commercial production of strawberries,
blueberries Blueberries are a widely distributed and widespread group of perennial flowering plants with blue or purple berries. They are classified in the section ''Cyanococcus'' within the genus ''Vaccinium''. ''Vaccinium'' also includes cranberries, bi ...
, raspberries, and blackberries was a $6 billion industry dominated by the California growing and marketing company
Driscoll's Driscoll's is a California-based seller of fresh strawberries and other berries. It is a fourth-generation family business that has been in the Reiter and Driscoll families since the late 1800s. In 2017, it controlled roughly one-third of the $6 ...
. In 2017, strawberries alone were a $3.5 billion market of which 82% was for fresh fruit. To increase consumer demand in the 21st century, commercial producers of strawberries cultivated them mainly for favorable aroma characteristics similar to those of wild strawberries, in addition to having large size, heart-shape, glossy red exterior, firmness, and slow ripening for long shelf-life favorable to ship by
ground transportation Land transport is the transport or movement of people, animals or goods from one location to another location on land. The two main forms of land transport can be considered to be rail transport and road transport. Systems Several systems of land ...
from farms to stores nationwide for consumption within two weeks of harvest. In US and Canadian grocery stores, fresh strawberries are typically sold in plastic clamshells, and are among the top fresh produce items in grocery revenues. One marketing analysis identified strawberries and other berries as a source of "happiness" for consumers.


Culinary

In addition to being consumed fresh, strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or preserves, as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars. Strawberries and strawberry flavorings are a popular addition to dairy products, such as strawberry milk, strawberry ice cream, strawberry milkshakes/ smoothies and strawberry yogurts. In the United Kingdom, "strawberries and cream" is a popular dessert consumed at the
Wimbledon Wimbledon most often refers to: * Wimbledon, London, a district of southwest London * Wimbledon Championships, the oldest tennis tournament in the world and one of the four Grand Slam championships Wimbledon may also refer to: Places London * ...
tennis tournament. Strawberries and cream is also a staple snack in Mexico, usually available at ice cream parlors. In Sweden, strawberries are a traditional dessert served on Midsummer's Eve. Depending on area,
strawberry pie Strawberry pie is a dessert food consisting mainly of strawberries and sugar in a pie crust, sometimes with gelatin. It is often served with whipped cream. Preparation Fresh strawberry pies are usually made with in-season sweet berries, w ...
,
strawberry rhubarb pie Rhubarb pie is a pie with a rhubarb filling. It is popular in the UK, where rhubarb has been cultivated since the 1600s, and the leaf stalks eaten since the 1700s. Besides diced rhubarb, it almost always contains a large amount of sugar to ba ...
, or strawberry shortcake are also common. In Greece, strawberries may be sprinkled with sugar and then dipped in Metaxa, a
brandy Brandy is a liquor produced by distilling wine. Brandy generally contains 35–60% alcohol by volume (70–120 US proof) and is typically consumed as an after-dinner digestif. Some brandies are aged in wooden casks. Others are coloured with ...
, and served as a dessert. In Italy, strawberries are used for various desserts and as a common flavoring for
gelato Gelato (; ) is the common word in Italian for all kinds of ice cream. In English, it specifically refers to a frozen dessert of Italian origin. Artisanal gelato in Italy generally contains 6%–9% butterfat, which is lower than other styles o ...
(gelato alla fragola).


Nutrients

Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). A 100 gram reference amount of strawberries supplies 33 kilocalories, is a rich source of vitamin C (71% of the Daily Value, DV), a good source of manganese (18% DV), and provides several other vitamins and dietary minerals in small amounts. Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential unsaturated fatty acids in the
achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
(seed) oil.


Phytochemicals

Garden strawberries contain the dimeric ellagitannin agrimoniin which is an isomer of
sanguiin H-6 Sanguiin H-6 is an ellagitannin. Natural occurrence Sanguiin H-6 can be found in Rosaceae such as the great burnet (''Sanguisorba officinalis''), in strawberries (''Fragaria × ananassa'') and in ''Rubus'' species such as red raspberries (''Rub ...
. Other polyphenols present include
flavonoid Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans. Chemically, flavonoids ...
s, such as
anthocyanin Anthocyanins (), also called anthocyans, are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart gave the name Anthokyan to a chemical compo ...
s, flavanols, flavonols and phenolic acids, such as hydroxybenzoic acid and hydroxycinnamic acid. Strawberries contain fisetin and possess higher levels of this flavonoid than other fruits. Although achenes comprise only about 1% of total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of the total polyphenol in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include ellagic acid, ellagic acid glycosides, and ellagitannins.


Color

Pelargonidin-3-glucoside Callistephin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-''O''-glucoside of pelargonidin. It is found in pomegranate juice, in strawberries and in purple corn. It is also found in the berry skins of Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir grapes ''(Vitis vinifera' ...
is the major anthocyanin in strawberries and cyanidin-3-glucoside is found in smaller proportions. Although glucose seems to be the most common substituting sugar in strawberry anthocyanins, rutinose, arabinose, and rhamnose conjugates have been found in some strawberry cultivars. Purple minor pigments consisting of dimeric anthocyanins (flavanol-anthocyanin adducts : catechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside, epicatechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside, afzelechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside and epiafzelechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside) can also be found in strawberries.


Flavor and fragrance

As strawberry flavor and fragrance are characteristics that may appeal to consumers, they are used widely in a variety of manufacturing, including foods, beverages, confections, perfumes and cosmetics. Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavor are favorable attributes. In
plant breeding Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics. It has been used to improve the quality of nutrition in products for humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce cro ...
and farming, emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and volatile compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of a ripe strawberry. Esters, terpenes, and
furan Furan is a heterocyclic organic compound, consisting of a five-membered aromatic ring with four carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. Chemical compounds containing such rings are also referred to as furans. Furan is a colorless, flammable, highly ...
s are chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavor and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to favorable flavor and fragrance. In breeding strawberries for the commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds, methyl anthranilate and gamma-decalactone prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics. Chemicals present in the fragrance of strawberries include: * methyl acetate * (''E'')-2-hexen-1-ol * (''E'')-2-hexenal * (''E'')-2-pentenal * (''E'',''E'')-2,4-hexadienal * (''Z'')-2-hexenyl acetate * (''Z'')-3-hexenyl acetate *
1-hexanol 1-Hexanol (IUPAC name hexan-1-ol) is an organic alcohol with a six-carbon chain and a condensed structural formula of CH3(CH2)5OH. This colorless liquid is slightly soluble in water, but miscible with diethyl ether and ethanol. Two additional st ...
*
2-heptanol 2-Heptanol is a chemical compound which is an isomer of heptanol. It is a secondary alcohol with the hydroxyl on the second carbon of the straight seven-carbon chain. 2-Heptanol is chiral, so (R)- and (S)- isomers exist. See also * 1-Heptanol ...
* 2-heptanone * 2-methyl butanoic acid * 2-methylbutyl acetate *
alpha-terpineol Terpineol is any of four isomeric monoterpenoids. Terpenoids are terpene that are modified by the addition of a functional group, in this case, an alcohol. Terpineols have been isolated from a variety of sources such as cardamom, cajuput oil, ...
* amyl acetate * amyl butyrate *
benzaldehyde Benzaldehyde (C6H5CHO) is an organic compound consisting of a benzene ring with a formyl substituent. It is the simplest aromatic aldehyde and one of the most industrially useful. It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic almond-like odor. ...
* benzyl acetate * butyl acetate *
butyl butyrate Butyl butyrate, or butyl butanoate, is an organic compound that is an ester formed by the condensation of butyric acid and ''n''-butanol. It is a clear, colorless liquid that is insoluble in water, but miscible with ethanol and diethyl ether. It ...
* butyl hexanoate *
butyric acid Butyric acid (; from grc, βούτῡρον, meaning "butter"), also known under the systematic name butanoic acid, is a straight-chain alkyl carboxylic acid with the chemical formula CH3CH2CH2CO2H. It is an oily, colorless liquid with an unple ...
* octanoic acid * decyl acetate * decyl butyrate * d-limonene * ethyl 2-methylbutanoate * ethyl 3-methylbutanoate * ethyl acetate * ethyl benzoate * ethyl butyrate *
ethyl decanoate Ethyl decanoate, also known as ethyl caprate, is a fatty acid ester formed from capric acid and ethanol. This ester is a frequent product of fermentation Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substra ...
* ethyl hexanoate *
ethyl octanoate Ethyl octanoate, also known as ethyl caprylate, is a fatty acid ester formed from caprylic acid and ethanol. A colorless liquid at room temperature, it has the semi-developed formula of CH3(CH2)6COOCH2CH3, and is used in food industries as a flavo ...
*
ethyl pentanoate Ethyl pentanoate, also commonly known as ethyl valerate, is an organic compound used in flavors. It is an ester In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an oxoacid (organic or inorganic) in which at least one hydroxyl group () is r ...
* ethyl propanoate * ethyl-2-hexenoate * α-farnesene * β-farnesene * furaneol *
γ-decalactone ''gamma''-Decalactone is a lactone and aroma compound with the chemical formula C10H18O2. It has an intense-peach flavor. It is present naturally in many fruits and fermented products. It is particularly important in the formulation of peach, a ...
* γ-dodecalactone * heptanoic acid * ''n''-hexanal * hexanoic acid *
hexyl acetate Hexyl acetate is an ester with the molecular formula C8H16O2. It is mainly used as a solvent for resins, polymers, fats and oils. It is also used as a paint additive to improve its dispersion on a surface. Hexyl acetate is also used as a flavori ...
*
isoamyl acetate Isoamyl acetate, also known as isopentyl acetate, is an organic compound that is the ester formed from isoamyl alcohol and acetic acid, with the molecular formula C7H14O2.It is a colorless liquid that is only slightly soluble in water, but very s ...
* isoamyl hexanoate * isopropyl acetate * isopropyl butanoate * isopropyl hexanoate * linalool * mesifurane * methyl anthranilate * methyl butyrate *
methyl hexanoate Methyl hexanoate is the fatty acid methyl ester of hexanoic acid (caproic acid), a colourless liquid organic compound with the chemical formula . It is found naturally in many foods and has a role as a plant metabolite. It can also be found in t ...
* methyl isovalerate * methyl octanoate *
methyl pentanoate Methyl pentanoate, commonly known as methyl valerate, is the methyl ester of pentanoic acid (valeric acid) with a fruity odor. Methyl pentanoate is commonly used in fragrances, beauty care, soap, laundry detergents at levels of 0.1–1%. In ...
* methyl propanoate * (''E'')-nerolidol * nonanal *
nonanoic acid Pelargonic acid, also called nonanoic acid, is an organic compound with structural formula CH3(CH2)7CO2H. It is a nine-carbon fatty acid. Nonanoic acid is a colorless oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It is nearly insoluble in water, ...
* ocimenol * octyl acetate * octyl butyrate * octyl hexanoate * octyl isovalerate * propyl butyrate *
propyl hexanoate Propyl hexanoate (C9H18O2), also known as propyl caproate, is an ester formed by the reaction of propanol with hexanoic acid. Although it is a completely different ester, propyl hexanoate shares the same chemical formula with methyl octanoate, eth ...


Genetics

Modern strawberries are octoploid (8 sets of chromosomes). The genome sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019.


Allergy

Some people experience an
anaphylactoid reaction Anaphylaxis is a serious, potentially fatal allergic reaction and medical emergency that is rapid in onset and requires immediate medical attention regardless of use of emergency medication on site. It typically causes more than one of the follow ...
to eating strawberries. The most common form of this reaction is oral allergy syndrome, but symptoms may also mimic
hay fever Allergic rhinitis, of which the seasonal type is called hay fever, is a type of inflammation in the nose that occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. Signs and symptoms include a runny or stuffy nose, sneezing, red, i ...
or include dermatitis or
hives Hives, also known as urticaria, is a kind of skin rash with red, raised, itchy bumps. Hives may burn or sting. The patches of rash may appear on different body parts, with variable duration from minutes to days, and does not leave any long-lasti ...
, and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems. Proteomic studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1).
Homologous Homology may refer to: Sciences Biology *Homology (biology), any characteristic of biological organisms that is derived from a common ancestor *Sequence homology, biological homology between DNA, RNA, or protein sequences * Homologous chrom ...
proteins are found in birch
pollen Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophyt ...
and apple, suggesting that people may develop cross-reactivity to all three species. White-fruited strawberry cultivars, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for strawberry allergy sufferers. Since they lack a protein necessary for normal ripening by anthocyanin synthesis of red pigments, they do not turn the mature berries of other cultivars red. They ripen but remain white, pale yellow or "golden", appearing like immature berries; this also has the advantage of making them less attractive to birds. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.


See also

*
California Strawberry Commission The California Strawberry Commission, is a state-chartered agency of the California Department of Food and Agriculture. Established by the California State Legislature in 1993, the commission replaced the California Strawberry Advisory Board. T ...
*
Fraise Tagada The Fraise Tagada ("Tagada Strawberry") is a candy invented in 1969 by the Haribo Company. The Fraise Tagada is presented in the shape of an inflated strawberry covered in fine sugar, colored pink and scented. The candy is made from sugar, gl ...
(strawberry-shaped candy popular in France) *
List of culinary fruits This list contains the names of Fruit, fruits that are considered Eating, edible either raw or in some Cuisine, cuisines. The word "fruit" is used in several different ways. The definition of fruit for this list is a culinary fruit, that is, "Any ...
*
List of strawberry cultivars The following is a partial list of strawberry cultivars. Strawberries come in a wide assortment of commercially available cultivars (cultivated varieties). Differences between cultivars may include the date the fruit ripens, disease resistance, ...
* List of strawberry dishes * List of strawberry topics *
Musk strawberry The musk strawberry or hautbois strawberry (''Fragaria moschata''), is a species of strawberry native to Europe. Its French name ''hautbois'' strawberry may be anglicised as hautboy strawberry. The plants are hardy and can survive in many weather ...
(hautbois strawberry) * Plant City, Florida (winter strawberry capital of the world) * Pineberry * Pomology * Strawberry cake *
Strawberry sauce Strawberry sauce is a culinary sauce and coulis prepared using strawberries as the main ingredient. It is typically used as a dessert sauce, although it can also be used on savory dishes. Simple versions can be prepared using blended, macerated, ...


References


External links


''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' data from GRIN Taxonomy Database
* * * {{Authority control Strawberries Fragaria Hybrid fruit Articles containing video clips Crops Symbols of Delaware Berries