''Strategos'', plural ''strategoi'',
Latinized ''strategus'', ( el, στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί;
Doric Greek
Doric or Dorian ( grc, Δωρισμός, Dōrismós), also known as West Greek, was a group of Ancient Greek dialects; its varieties are divided into the Doric proper and Northwest Doric subgroups. Doric was spoken in a vast area, that included ...
: στραταγός, ''stratagos''; meaning "army leader") is used in
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
to mean military
general
A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of highest military ranks, high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry.
In some usages the term "general officer" refers t ...
. In the
Hellenistic world
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...
and the
Eastern Roman Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern
Hellenic Army
The Hellenic Army ( el, Ελληνικός Στρατός, Ellinikós Stratós, sometimes abbreviated as ΕΣ), formed in 1828, is the land force of Greece. The term ''Hellenic'' is the endogenous synonym for ''Greek''. The Hellenic Army is th ...
, it is the highest officer rank.
Etymology
''Strategos'' is a compound of two Greek words: ''stratos'' and ''agos''. ''Stratos'' (στρατός) means "army", literally "that which is spread out", coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere- "to spread". ''Agos'' (ἀγός) means "leader", from ''agein'' (ἄγειν) "to lead", from the proto-Ιndo-Εuropean root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move”.
Classical Greece
Athens
In its most famous attestation, in
Classical Athens
The city of Athens ( grc, Ἀθῆναι, ''Athênai'' .tʰɛ̂ː.nai̯ Modern Greek: Αθήναι, ''Athine'' or, more commonly and in singular, Αθήνα, ''Athina'' .'θi.na during the classical period of ancient Greece (480–323 BC) wa ...
, the office of ''strategos'' existed already in the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of
Cleisthenes
Cleisthenes ( ; grc-gre, Κλεισθένης), or Clisthenes (c. 570c. 508 BC), was an ancient Athenian lawgiver credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. For these accomplishm ...
in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten ''strategoi'' who were elected annually, one from each tribe (''
phyle
''Phyle'' ( gr, φυλή, phulē, "tribe, clan"; pl. ''phylai'', φυλαί; derived from ancient Greek φύεσθαι "to descend, to originate") is an ancient Greek term for tribe or clan. Members of the same ''phyle'' were known as ''symphylet ...
''). The ten were of equal status, and replaced the ''
polemarchos
A polemarch (, from , ''polemarchos'') was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states (''poleis''). The title is derived from the words ''polemos'' (war) and ''archon'' (ruler, leader) and translates as "warleader" or "warlord". ...
'', who had hitherto been the senior military commander.
At the
Battle of Marathon
The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. The battle was the culmination of ...
in 490 BC (according to
Herodotus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria ( Italy). He is known f ...
) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the ''polemarchos'' had a
casting vote
A casting vote is a vote that someone may exercise to resolve a tied vote in a deliberative body. A casting vote is typically by the presiding officer of a council, legislative body, committee, etc., and may only be exercised to break a deadlock ...
, and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the ''polemarchos'', like the other ''
archon
''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...
tes'', was appointed by lot. The annual election of the ''strategoi'' was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a ''strategos'' died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him.
![Pericles Pio-Clementino Inv269 n3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Pericles_Pio-Clementino_Inv269_n3.jpg)
The strict adherence to the principle of a ''strategos'' from each tribe lasted until , after which two ''strategoi'' could be selected from the same tribe and another tribe be left without its own ''strategos'', perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available.
This system continued at least until , but by the time
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
wrote his ''
Constitution of the Athenians'' in , the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the
Hellenistic period
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...
, although the number of the tribes was increased, the number of ''strategoi'' remained constant at ten.
In the early part of the 5th century, several ''strategoi'' combined their military office with a political role, with
Themistocles
Themistocles (; grc-gre, Θεμιστοκλῆς; c. 524–459 BC) was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy. A ...
,
Aristides
Aristides ( ; grc-gre, Ἀριστείδης, Aristeídēs, ; 530–468 BC) was an ancient Athenian statesman. Nicknamed "the Just" (δίκαιος, ''dikaios''), he flourished in the early quarter of Athens' Classical period and is remembe ...
,
Cimon
Cimon or Kimon ( grc-gre, Κίμων; – 450BC) was an Athenian ''strategos'' (general and admiral) and politician.
He was the son of Miltiades, also an Athenian ''strategos''. Cimon rose to prominence for his bravery fighting in the naval Batt ...
, or
Pericles
Pericles (; grc-gre, Περικλῆς; c. 495 – 429 BC) was a Greek politician and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Pelopo ...
among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own personal political charisma. As political power passed to the civilian ''rhetores'' in the later 5th century, the ''strategoi'' were limited to their military duties.
Originally, the ''strategoi'' were appointed ''ad hoc'' to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually up to three—''strategoi'' might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where the ''
nauarchos
Navarch ( el, ναύαρχος, ) is an Anglicisation of a Greek word meaning "leader of the ships", which in some states became the title of an office equivalent to that of a modern admiral.
Historical usage
Not all states gave their naval ...
'' commanded the navy, the Athenian ''strategoi'' held command both at sea and on land.
From the middle of the 4th century, the ''strategoi'' increasingly were given specific assignments, such as the ''strategos epi ten choran'' () for the defence of
Attica
Attica ( el, Αττική, Ancient Greek ''Attikḗ'' or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the city of Athens, the capital of Greece and its countryside. It is a peninsula projecting into the Aegean Se ...
; the ''strategos epi tous
hoplitas'' (), in charge of expeditions abroad; the two ''strategoi epi ton Peiraia'' (), responsible for the war harbour of
Piraeus
Piraeus ( ; el, Πειραιάς ; grc, Πειραιεύς ) is a port city within the Athens urban area ("Greater Athens"), in the Attica region of Greece. It is located southwest of Athens' city centre, along the east coast of the Saronic ...
; and the ''strategos epi tas
symmoria The ''symmoria'' ( el, συμμορία, pl. συμμορίαι, ''symmoriai'') was a group of wealthy citizens in Classical Athens during the 4th century BC, assessed together for the purposes of taxation.
Fiscal ''symmoriai''
The ''symmoriai'' ...
s'' (), responsible for the equipment of the warships.
This was generalized in Hellenistic times, when each ''strategos'' was given specific duties. In the
Roman Imperial period
The Roman imperial period is the expansion of political and cultural influence of the Roman Empire. The period begins with the reign of Augustus (), and it is taken to end variously between the late 3rd and the late 4th century, with the beginning ...
, the ''strategos epi ta hopla'' () became the most prominent magistrate in Athens.
The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC.
The Athenian people kept a close eye on their ''strategoi''. Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to ''
euthyna {{refimprove, date=December 2015
The term euthyna (plural euthynai), meaning ''straightening'', was the examination of accountability which every public officer underwent on the expiration of his office in Classical Greece. At Athens the examinati ...
'' and in addition there was a vote in the ''
ekklesia'' during every
prytany
The ''prytaneis'' (πρυτάνεις; sing.: πρύτανις ''prytanis'') were the executives of the '' boule'' of ancient Athens.
Origins and organization
The term (like ''basileus'' or ''tyrannos'') is probably of Pre-Greek etymology (pos ...
on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office as ''strategos'' and fined, and in 406 six of the eight ''strategoi'' who commanded the fleet at the
Battle of Arginusae
The naval Battle of Arginusae took place in 406 BC during the Peloponnesian War near the city of Canae in the Arginusae islands, east of the island of Lesbos. In the battle, an Athenian fleet commanded by eight strategoi defeated a Spartan fle ...
were all removed from office and condemned to death.
Other Greek states
The title of ''strategos'' appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander.
The ''strategos'' as an office is attested at least for
Syracuse from the late 5th century BC,
Erythrae
Erythrae or Erythrai ( el, Ἐρυθραί) later Litri, was one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor, situated 22 km north-east of the port of Cyssus (modern name: Çeşme), on a small peninsula stretching into the Bay of Erythrae ...
, and in the ''
koinon
''Koinon'' ( el, Κοινόν, pl. Κοινά, ''Koina''), meaning "common", in the sense of "public", had many interpretations, some societal, some governmental. The word was the neuter form of the adjective, roughly equivalent in the government ...
'' of the
Arcadia
Arcadia may refer to:
Places Australia
* Arcadia, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney
* Arcadia, Queensland
* Arcadia, Victoria
Greece
* Arcadia (region), a region in the central Peloponnese
* Arcadia (regional unit), a modern administrative un ...
ns in the 360s BC.
The title of ''
strategos autokrator'' was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on an ''ad hoc'' basis.
Thus
Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon ( grc-gre, Φίλιππος ; 382 – 21 October 336 BC) was the king ('' basileus'') of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia from 359 BC until his death in 336 BC. He was a member of the Argead dynasty, founders of the ...
was elected as ''strategos autokrator'' (commander-in-chief with full powers) of the
League of Corinth
The League of Corinth, also referred to as the Hellenic League (from Greek Ἑλληνικός ''Hellenikos'', "pertaining to Greece and Greeks"), was a confederation of Greek states created by Philip II in 338–337 BC. The League was create ...
.
Hellenistic and Roman use
Under
Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon ( grc-gre, Φίλιππος ; 382 – 21 October 336 BC) was the king ('' basileus'') of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia from 359 BC until his death in 336 BC. He was a member of the Argead dynasty, founders of the ...
, the title of ''strategos'' was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. ''strategos tes Europes'' ("''strategos'' of Europe").
In several Greek city leagues the title ''strategos'' was reserved for the head of state. In the
Aetolian League
The Aetolian (or Aitolian) League ( grc-gre, Κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτωλῶν) was a confederation of tribal communities and cities in ancient Greece centered in Aetolia in central Greece. It was probably established during the early Hellen ...
and the
Achaean League
The Achaean League (Greek: , ''Koinon ton Akhaion'' "League of Achaeans") was a Hellenistic-era confederation of Greek city states on the northern and central Peloponnese. The league was named after the region of Achaea in the northwestern Pel ...
, where the strategos was annually elected, he was the
eponymous
An eponym is a person, a place, or a thing after whom or which someone or something is, or is believed to be, named. The adjectives which are derived from the word eponym include ''eponymous'' and ''eponymic''.
Usage of the word
The term ''epon ...
chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, were
Aratus of Sicyon
Aratus of Sicyon (Ancient Greek: Ἄρατος ὁ Σικυώνιος; 271–213 BC) was a politician and military commander of Hellenistic Greece. He was elected strategos of the Achaean League 17 times, leading the League through numerous m ...
and
Philopoemen of Megalopolis. ''Strategoi'' are also reported in the
Arcadian League
The Arcadian League ( grc, ) was a league of city-states in ancient Greece. It combined the various cities of Arcadia, in the Peloponnese, into a single state. The league was founded in 370 BC, taking advantage of the decreased power of Sparta ...
, in the
Epirote League and in the
Acarnanian League
The Acarnanian League ( grc, τὸ κοινὸν τῶν Ἁκαρνάνων, ''to koinon tōn Akarnanōn'') was the tribal confederation, and later a fully-fledged federation ('' koinon''), of the Acarnanians in Classical, Hellenistic, and ear ...
, whereas the leaders of the
Boeotian League
Boeotia ( ), sometimes Latinized as Boiotia or Beotia ( el, Βοιωτία; modern: ; ancient: ), formerly known as Cadmeis, is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, and its la ...
and the
Thessalian League
The Thessalian League (Thessalian Aeolic: , ''Koinòn toûn Petthaloûn''; Attic: , ''Koinòn tôn Thettalôn''; Ionic and Koine Greek: , ''Koinòn tôn Thessalôn'') was a ''koinon'' or loose confederacy of feudal-like ''poleis'' and tribes in a ...
had different titles,
Boeotarch Boeotarch ( el, Βοιωτάρχης, ''Boiotarches'') was the title of the chief officers of the Boeotian Confederacy, founded in 379 BC after a rebellion freed the cities of Boeotia from Spartan dominance. There were seven Boeotarchs, democratic ...
and
Tagus
The Tagus ( ; es, Tajo ; pt, Tejo ; see #Name, below) is the longest river in the Iberian Peninsula. The river rises in the Montes Universales near Teruel, in mid-eastern Spain, flows , generally west with two main south-westward sections ...
respectively.
In the Hellenistic empires of the
Diadochi
The Diadochi (; singular: Diadochus; from grc-gre, Διάδοχοι, Diádochoi, Successors, ) were the rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC. The War ...
, notably
Lagid Egypt, for which most details are known, ''strategos'' became a gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties.
In Egypt, the ''strategoi'' were originally responsible for the Greek military colonists (''
klerouchoi'') established in the country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the ''nomarches'', the governor of each of the country's
nomes, and the ''
oikonomos
''Oikonomos'' ( el, οἰκονόμος, from - 'house' and - 'rule, law'), latinized œconomus, oeconomus, or economos, was an Ancient Greek word meaning "household manager." In Byzantine times, the term was used as a title of a manager or tr ...
'', in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 283–246 BC), the ''strategos'' was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as the ''klerouchoi'' were progressively demilitarized.
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
egy, Iwaennetjerwymerwyitu Seteppah Userkare Sekhem-ankhamun Clayton (2006) p. 208.
, predecessor = Ptolemy IV
, successor = Ptolemy VI
, horus = '' ḥwnw-ḫꜤj-m-nsw-ḥr-st-jt.f'Khunukhaiemnisutkhersetitef'' The youth who ...
(r. 204–181 BC) established the office of ''
epistrategos ''Epistrategos'' ( grc, ἐπιστράτηγος, , over-general; la, epistrategus) was a senior military and administrative office in Ptolemaic Egypt, which was retained during the subsequent Roman period as well. Each ''epistrategos'' were resp ...
'' (, "over-general") to oversee the individual ''strategoi''. The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of the ''nomarches'' and the ''oikonomos'', while the ''epistrategos'' retained powers of military command. In addition, ''hypostrategoi'' (sing. ''hypostrategos'', ) could be appointed as subordinates.
The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into the
Roman period
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
, where the ''epistrategos'' was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and the ''procurator ad epistrategiam'' was placed in charge of the ''strategoi''. The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country.
The
Odrysian kingdom
The Odrysian Kingdom (; Ancient Greek: ) was a state grouping many Thracian tribes united by the Odrysae, which arose in the early 5th century BC and existed at least until the late 1st century BC. It consisted mainly of present-day Bulgaria an ...
of
Thrace
Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to t ...
was also divided into ''strategiai'' ("generalships"), each headed by a ''strategos'', based on the various
Thracian
The Thracians (; grc, Θρᾷκες ''Thrāikes''; la, Thraci) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Eastern and Southeastern Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied t ...
tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the new
Roman province
The Roman provinces (Latin: ''provincia'', pl. ''provinciae'') were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was rule ...
, and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until c. 136 that the last of them were abolished.
Under the
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kin ...
and later through the
Principate
The Principate is the name sometimes given to the first period of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in AD 284, after which it evolved into the so-called Dominate.
...
, Greek historians often used the term ''strategos'' when referring to the Roman political/military office of ''
praetor
Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected '' magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to discharge vario ...
''. Such a use can be found in the
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
:
Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its messag ...
16:20 refers to the magistrates of
Philippi as ''strategoi'' (στρατηγοί).
1881 Westcott-Hort New Testament, ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ ΤΩΝ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ 16:20
και προσαγαγοντες αυτους τοις στρατηγοις ειπαν ουτοι οι ανθρωποι εκταρασσουσιν ημων την πολιν ιουδαιοι υπαρχοντες Correspondingly, ''antistrategos'' (, "vice-general") was used to refer to the office of ''propraetor
In ancient Rome a promagistrate ( la, pro magistratu) was an ex-consul or ex-praetor whose ''imperium'' (the power to command an army) was extended at the end of his annual term of office or later. They were called proconsuls and propraetors. Thi ...
''.
Byzantine use
The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
. Initially, the term was used along with ''stratelates
''Stratēlatēs'' ( el, στρατηλάτης, "driver/leader of the army") was a Greek term designating a general, which also became an honorary dignity in the Byzantine Empire. In the former sense, it was often applied to military saints, such ...
'' and, less often, ''stratopedarches
''Stratopedarchēs'' ( el, στρατοπεδάρχης, , master of the camp), sometimes Anglicized as Stratopedarch, was a Greek term used with regard to high-ranking military commanders from the 1st century BC on, becoming a proper office in ...
'', to render the supreme military office of ''magister militum
(Latin for "master of soldiers", plural ) was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, ...
'' (the general in command of a field army
A field army (or numbered army or simply army) is a military formation in many armed forces, composed of two or more corps and may be subordinate to an army group. Likewise, air armies are equivalent formation within some air forces, and with ...
), but could also be employed for the regional '' duces''. In the 7th century, with the creation of the Theme system
Theme or themes may refer to:
* Theme (arts), the unifying subject or idea of the type of visual work
* Theme (Byzantine district), an administrative district in the Byzantine Empire governed by a Strategos
* Theme (computing), a custom graphical ...
, their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with the civil governance of the theme. The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincial ''strategoi'' were in constant antagonism with the emperor at Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of ''strategoi'' increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw the establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while in c. 842 the ''Taktikon Uspensky
The ''Taktikon Uspensky'' or ''Uspenskij'' is the conventional name of a mid-9th century Greek list of the civil, military and ecclesiastical offices of the Byzantine Empire and their precedence at the imperial court. Nicolas Oikonomides has dated ...
'' lists 18 ''strategoi'', the ''Escorial Taktikon
The ''Escorial Taktikon'' (other spellings: ''Escurial Taktikon'', ''Escorial Tacticon'', ''Escurial Tacticon''), also known as the ''Taktikon Oikonomides'' after Nicolas Oikonomides who first edited it, is a list of Byzantine offices, dignities, ...
'', written c. 971–975, lists almost 90.
Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the ''strategos'' of the Anatolic theme enjoyed precedence over the others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from which eunuchs
A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.
The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
were specifically barred. At the same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presiding ''strategoi'': while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces. During the 11th century, the ''strategoi'' were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by the civil ''kritai'' ("judges"). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titled '' doukes'' or ''katepano
The ''katepánō'' ( el, κατεπάνω, lit. "he oneplaced at the top", or " the topmost") was a senior Byzantine military rank and office. The word was Latinized as ''capetanus/catepan'', and its meaning seems to have merged with that of the ...
'', who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the term ''strategos'' had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning.
The Byzantines also used a number of variations of the title ''strategos'': ''strategetes'' (στρατηγέτης, "army leader") was an infrequently used alternative term; the term ''monostrategos'' (μονοστράτηγος, "single-general") designated a general placed in command over other ''strategoi'' or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms ''strategos autokrator'', ''archistrategos'' (, "chief-general") and ''protostrategos'' (πρωτοστράτηγος, "first-general") designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and the term ''hypostrategos'' (, "under-general") denoted a second-in-command, effectively a lieutenant general
Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
.
In Messina
The city of Messina
Messina (, also , ) is a harbour city and the capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of more than 219,000 inhabitants in ...
in Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
also had a Strategos. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona, illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily, held that position.
Modern use
In the modern Hellenic Army
The Hellenic Army ( el, Ελληνικός Στρατός, Ellinikós Stratós, sometimes abbreviated as ΕΣ), formed in 1828, is the land force of Greece. The term ''Hellenic'' is the endogenous synonym for ''Greek''. The Hellenic Army is th ...
, a ''stratigós'' (the spelling remains στρατηγός) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of '' stratárchis'' (Field Marshal
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army and as such few persons are appointed to it. It is considered as ...
) existed under the monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy) ...
, but has not been retained by the current Third Hellenic Republic
The Third Hellenic Republic ( el, Γ΄ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Triti Elliniki Dimokratia) is the period in modern Greek history that stretches from 1974, with the fall of the Greek military junta and the final abolition of the Gre ...
. Under the monarchy, the rank of full ''stratigós'' in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Since , in accordance with NATO practice for the member nations' chiefs of defence
Chief may refer to:
Title or rank
Military and law enforcement
* Chief master sergeant, the ninth, and highest, enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force
* Chief of police, the head of a police department
* Chief of the boa ...
, the rank is held in active service by the Chief of the General Staff of National Defence, when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff
The Hellenic Army General Staff ( el, Γενικό Επιτελείο Στρατού, abbrev. ΓΕΣ) is the general staff of the Hellenic Army, the terrestrial component of the Greek Armed Forces. It was established in 1904. Since 1950, the HAGS ...
.
All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: ''antistrátigos'' and ''ypostrátigos'', for Lieutenant General
Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
and Major General
Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a ...
, respectively. A Brigadier General
Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointed ...
however is called '' taxíarchos'', after a ''táxis'' (in modern usage ''taxiarchía''), which means brigade. The ranks of ''antistrátigos'' and ''ypostrátigos'' are also used by the Hellenic Police
The Hellenic Police ( el, Ελληνική Αστυνομία, ''Ellinikí Astynomía'', abbreviated ) is the national police service and one of the three security forces of the Hellenic Republic. It is a large agency with responsibilities ra ...
(and the Greek Gendarmerie
The Hellenic Gendarmerie (, ''Elliniki Chorofylaki'') was the national gendarmerie and military police (until 1951) force of Greece.
History
19th century
The Greek Gendarmerie was established after the enthronement of King Otto in 1833 as the ...
before), the Greek Fire Service
The Hellenic Fire Service ( el, Πυροσβεστικό Σώμα, Pyrosvestiko Soma) is the national agency of Greece for fire and rescue service. It is part of the Ministry for Citizen Protection. (today the 15% of the strength). Volunteers ac ...
and the Cypriot National Guard
, name2 = National Guard General Staff
, image = Emblem of the Cypriot National Guard.svg
, image_size = 100px
, caption = Emblem of the National Guard of Cyprus
, image2 = Flag of the ...
, which lack the grade of full ''stratigós''.
Fictional uses
The oldest use of the term ''strategos'' in fiction may be found in the ''Callirhoe'' of Chariton of Aphrodisias which is dated in the first century A.D. There, Hermocrates is the "strategos" of Syracuse and the father of Callirhoe, living in the 5th century B.C. In fact, he was a historical person, the victor over the Athenians in 413 B.C., an event which stopped Athenian expansion to the West. His role as a character in the novel is rather limited. Although his position in Syracuse gives Callirhoe a background, and he gives consent to her marriage and fulfills a few official duties, his legal or constitutional position is not very clear.
This position was featured in Orson Scott Card
Orson Scott Card (born August 24, 1951) is an American writer known best for his science fiction works. He is the first and (as of 2022) only person to win both a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award in consecutive years, winning both awards for both ...
's novel ''Ender's Game
''Ender's Game'' is a 1985 military science fiction novel by American author Orson Scott Card. Set at an unspecified date in Earth's future, the novel presents an imperiled humankind after two conflicts with an insectoid alien species they dub ...
''. In the novel, the position of Strategos was charged with overall command of solar system defense. The Strategos, along with the positions of Polemarch
A polemarch (, from , ''polemarchos'') was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states (''poleis''). The title is derived from the words ''polemos'' (war) and '' archon'' (ruler, leader) and translates as "warleader" or "warlord" ...
(responsible for the International Fleet of space warships), and the Hegemon
Hegemony (, , ) is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states. In Ancient Greece (8th BC – AD 6th ), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the ''hegemon'' city-state over other city-states. ...
(the political leader of Earth, rather like a stronger version of the Secretary-General of the United Nations
The secretary-general of the United Nations (UNSG or SG) is the chief administrative officer of the United Nations and head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations.
The role of the secretary-g ...
), was one of the three most powerful people alive. During an earlier war described in the novel, because of a belief in their inherent luck and brilliance—specifically, that no Jewish general had ever lost a war—all three positions were filled with Jewish people: an American Jew as Hegemon, an Israeli Jew as Strategos, and a Russian Jew as Polemarch. The defeat of the Formics by half-Māori
Māori or Maori can refer to:
Relating to the Māori people
* Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group
* Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand
* Māori culture
* Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...
Mazer Rackham
''This literature-related list is incomplete; you can help by to include characters from the First Formic War trilogy.''
This is a partial list of characters in the ''Ender's Game'' series.
Wiggin family
* Andrew "Ender" Wiggin is the prota ...
changed this position. Bean
A bean is the seed of several plants in the family Fabaceae, which are used as vegetables for human or animal food. They can be cooked in many different ways, including boiling, frying, and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes th ...
(Julian Delphiki) was given the title of Strategos by Peter Wiggin
''This literature-related list is incomplete; you can help by to include characters from the First Formic War trilogy.''
This is a partial list of characters in the ''Ender's Game'' series.
Wiggin family
* Andrew "Ender" Wiggin is the prota ...
after he assumed the role of Hegemon. The prequel novel ''Earth Awakens
''Earth Awakens'' is a science fiction novel by American writers Orson Scott Card
Orson Scott Card (born August 24, 1951) is an American writer known best for his science fiction works. He is the first and (as of 2022) only person to win bo ...
'' establishes that the position of Strategos was named after the Strategoi, a group of international military commanders in charge of the Mobile Operations Police, which served as the model for the newly created International Fleet. The first Strategos was Lieutenant Colonel Yulian Robinov of the Russian Ministry of Defense, who served as the chair of the Strategoi during the First Invasion.
The dystopian slave-empire of the Draka, in the series of books by S. M. Stirling
Stephen Michael Stirling (born September 30, 1953) is a Canadian-American science fiction and fantasy author who was born in France. Stirling is well known for his Draka series of alternate history novels and his later time travel/alternate hi ...
, also uses "Strategos" together with many other military ranks and terms drawn from Classical Antiquity
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
, though often with only the loosest resemblance to what they originally meant.
The position of 'Strategos' was also featured in the English version of the Sunrise
Sunrise (or sunup) is the moment when the upper rim of the Sun appears on the horizon in the morning. The term can also refer to the entire process of the solar disk crossing the horizon and its accompanying atmospheric effects.
Terminology
Al ...
anime ''The Vision of Escaflowne
is a 26-episode Japanese anime television series created by Shōji Kawamori and Sunrise Studios and directed by Kazuki Akane. It premiered in Japan on April 2, 1996 on TV Tokyo, and the final episode aired on September 24, 1996. Sony's a ...
''; the character Folken occupied the position when he served the Zaibach empire.
It is also used in the webcomic ''Ava's Demon
''Ava's Demon'' is a science fantasy webcomic written and drawn by Michelle Czajkowski Fus and colored by a number of colorists. The comic, which has been ongoing since 2012, is known for its painted art style and animations. The first physical ...
'' for Strategos Six.
The term is also used in the 2018 Ubisoft video game ''Assassin's Creed Odyssey
''Assassin's Creed Odyssey'' is a 2018 action role-playing video game developed by Ubisoft Quebec and published by Ubisoft. It is the eleventh major installment in the ''Assassin's Creed'' series and the successor to 2017's ''Assassin's Creed ...
''. There is no Athenian variant of them, as they are exclusively Spartan. They are powerful units found in forts and camps, second in power only to that of the Polemarch
A polemarch (, from , ''polemarchos'') was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states (''poleis''). The title is derived from the words ''polemos'' (war) and '' archon'' (ruler, leader) and translates as "warleader" or "warlord" ...
. They wield heavy blades and shield.
In ''Xenoblade Chronicles 3
''Xenoblade Chronicles 3'' is a 2022 action role-playing game developed by Monolith Soft and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Switch. Released on July 29, it is the fourth installment of the open-world '' Xenoblade Chronicles'' franchise ...
'', Strategos is the name of an optional character class, given by the character Isurd.
See also
*
*
*
*
Footnotes
Citations
General sources
* Hamel, Debra (1998). ''Athenian Generals: Military Authority in the Classical Period''. Leiden.
* Hansen, M. H. (1987). ''The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes''. Oxford.
*
* ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', 2nd edition. (1996). "strategoi".
* Roberts, John (2005). ''Dictionary of the Classical World''. Oxford.
External links
*
{{Greek terms for country subdivisions
Ancient Greek military terminology
Ancient Greek titles
Byzantine military offices
Gubernatorial titles
Military ranks of ancient Greece
Military ranks of ancient Macedon
Military ranks of Greece