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Ancient Chinese states () were typified by variously sized
city-states A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as ...
and territories that existed in China prior to its unification by
Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of "king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor ( ...
in 221 BCE. In many cases these were
vassal state A vassal state is any state that has a mutual obligation to a superior state or empire, in a status similar to that of a vassal in the feudal system in medieval Europe. Vassal states were common among the empires of the Near East, dating back to ...
s and
fief A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an Lord, overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a for ...
s established in the ''
fengjian ''Fēngjiàn'' ( zh, c=封建, l=enfeoffment and establishment) was a political ideology and governance system in ancient China, whose social structure formed a decentralized system of confederation-like government based on the ruling class consis ...
'' system characterized by tributes paid to the ruling
Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
(1046–256 BCE). Such states and fiefs would again emerge during later dynasties as a political expedient when required. Rulers of these states were known as ''zhuhou'' ().


Background

According to the
sinocentric Sinocentrism refers to the worldview that China is the cultural, political, or economic center of the world. It may be considered analogous to Eurocentrism. Overview and context Depending on the historical context, Sinocentrism can refer to ...
viewpoint and the
Mandate of Heaven The Mandate of Heaven () is a Chinese political philosophy that was used in ancient and imperial China to legitimize the rule of the King or Emperor of China. According to this doctrine, heaven (天, ''Tian'') – which embodies the natural ...
, China was the center of the world and the incumbent emperor its only ruler; all other would-be potentates and rulers were merely vassals of the Middle Kingdom. As a result, from the earliest times the Chinese viewed the world as a series of concentric spheres of influence emanating outward from their capital. Within the closest circle lay the vassal states who pledged allegiance to the Zhou ruler. Apart from the
Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
itself, which occupied territory around its capital, each state bore the suffix ''-guó'' (/) meaning state (nowadays also "nation"). Of the 150 or so states, some were little more than a small fortified town or city, and others had a capital and other urban areas, controlling significant amounts of territory.


History


Western Zhou

Following the overthrow of the
Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...
in 1046 BCE, the early kings made hereditary land grants to various relatives and descendants. These
enfeoffment In the Middle Ages, especially under the European feudal system, feoffment or enfeoffment was the deed by which a person was given land in exchange for a pledge of service. This mechanism was later used to avoid restrictions on the passage of ti ...
s were accompanied by a title according to the Five Orders of Nobility (五等爵位), with only the Zhou ruler bearing the title of "
King King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
" (, ''wáng''). Along with the land and title came a responsibility to support the Zhou king during an emergency and to pay ritual homage to the Zhou ancestors. In the
Yellow River The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: , Standard Beijing Mandarin, Mandarin: ''Huáng hé'' ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system in the world at th ...
Valley, of the earliest vassal states, the
State of Cai Cài (; Old Chinese: *s.r̥ˤat-s) was an ancient Chinese state established at the beginning of the Zhou dynasty, rising to prominence during the Spring and Autumn period, and destroyed early in the Warring States period. History Following his ...
was founded following a grant of land by the first Zhou King to his younger brother. Other states founded at this time included
Cao Cao or CAO may refer to: Mythology *Cao (bull), a legendary bull in Meitei mythology Companies or organizations * Air China Cargo, ICAO airline designator CAO *CA Oradea, Romanian football club *CA Osasuna, Spanish football club *Canadian Assoc ...
,
Yan Yan may refer to: Chinese states * Yan (state) (11th century – 222 BC), a major state in northern China during the Zhou dynasty * Yan (Han dynasty kingdom), first appearing in 206 BC * Yan (Three Kingdoms kingdom), officially claimed indepe ...
, Jin, and Chen. The central
State of Song Song (; Old Chinese: *') was a state during the Zhou dynasty of ancient China, with its capital at Shangqiu. The state was founded soon after King Wu of Zhou conquered the Shang dynasty to establish the Zhou dynasty in 1046 BC. It was conquered ...
was created as a land grant to the nobility of the defeated Shang dynasty. On the periphery, the states of
Yan Yan may refer to: Chinese states * Yan (state) (11th century – 222 BC), a major state in northern China during the Zhou dynasty * Yan (Han dynasty kingdom), first appearing in 206 BC * Yan (Three Kingdoms kingdom), officially claimed indepe ...
, Qi, and Jin in the north and northeast had more room to expand and grew into large states. In the south,
Xiong Yi Xiong Yi (, reigned 11th century BC) was the first viscount and an early ruler of the State of Chu during early Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. Son of Xiong Kuang, he was a descendant of the Yellow Emperor and Zhuanxu through his great-grandfathe ...
was granted the fiefdom of Chu, which grew powerful and its later rulers declared themselves kings. At this time, states (such as Yue) that were considered not as civilized were not eligible for vassaldom. Around the borders of the main states lay many smaller entities which over time would be absorbed by their larger neighbors.


Spring and Autumn period

After an attack by
Quanrong The Quanrong () or Dog Rong were an ethnic group, classified by the ancient Chinese as " Qiang", active in the northwestern part of China during and after the Zhou dynasty (1046–221 BCE). Their language or languages are considered to have been mem ...
nomads allied with several vassal states including Shen and Zheng, the Zhou ruler King You was killed in his palace at
Haojing Hao or Haojing (), also called Zongzhou (), was one of the two settlements comprising the capital of the Western Zhou dynasty (1066–770 BCE), the other being Fēng or Fēngjīng (). Together they were known as Fenghao and stood on opposite banks ...
. His son fled east and was enthroned by several vassal leaders as
King Ping of Zhou King Ping of Zhou (; died 720 BC), personal name Ji Yijiu, was the thirteenth king of the Zhou dynasty and the first of the Eastern Zhou dynasty.Sima Qian. ''Records of the Grand Historian'', "Zhou Dynasty Annals". History He was the son of Kin ...
. Thus began the Eastern Zhou Dynasty when a new capital constructed a capital at Luoyi (雒邑), modern day
Luoyang Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River (Henan), Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the ...
. Since territory around the city was restricted because other states including
Han Han may refer to: Ethnic groups * Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group. ** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
and Wei were already established in the area, it was impossible for the Zhou to expand their territory, a factor that became increasingly important as a survival mechanism for smaller states. New states continued to emerge whilst Chu was by this stage a powerful southern vassal, having shaken off its former “barbaric” image, as was Qin in the West. Between the seventh and sixth centuries a four-way balance of power emerged between Qin (west), Jin (west-center), Chu (south) and Qi (east) whilst a number of smaller states continued to exist between Jin and Qi. The
State of Deng The State of Deng () was a Chinese vassal state during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and the Spring and Autumn period (c. 1200 – 475 BCE) ruled by the Màn family (曼). Territory Sources conflict as to whether the State of Deng was situated in ...
was overthrown by Chu in 678 BCE followed by Qin’s annexation of State of Hua in 627 BCE, establishing a pattern that would gradually see all smaller states eliminated. Towards the end of the Spring and Autumn Period wars between states became increasingly common and a pattern of alliances developed amongst the more powerful rulers.


Hegemons

As the power of the Zhou king’s weakened, the Spring and Autumn period saw the emergence of
hegemons Hegemony (, , ) is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states. In Ancient Greece (8th BC – AD 6th ), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the ''hegemon'' city-state over other city-states. ...
() who held power over all other vassal states to raise armies and attack mutual enemies. Meetings were also held between the current hegemon and the rulers of the vassal states where ritual ceremonies took place that included swearing of oaths of allegiance to the current Zhou king and each other .


Warring States period

In 704 BCE,
Chu state Chu, or Ch'u in Wade–Giles romanization, (, Hanyu Pinyin: Chǔ, Old Chinese: ''*s-r̥aʔ'') was a Zhou dynasty vassal state. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BCE. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou he ...
's leader Xiong Tong (熊通) was the first vassal ruler to declare himself equal to the Zhou kings when he proclaimed himself king and later received the
posthumous name A posthumous name is an honorary name given mostly to the notable dead in East Asian culture. It is predominantly practiced in East Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Thailand. Reflecting on the person's accomplishments or ...
Wu (武).Theobald, Ulrich (Nov 1, 2018
"The Regional State of Chu 楚"
in ''ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art''
All the other states gradually followed suit until Zhou rule finally collapsed in 256 BCE. States continued to emerge as in the case of
Zhongshan Zhongshan (; ) is a prefecture-level city in the south of the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong province, China. As of the 2020 census, the whole city with 4,418,060 inhabitants is now part of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen conurbation with 65,565,622 i ...
in the north, which was established by the nomadic Bai Di (白翟) in the 5th century BCE and would last until 295 BCE. By about 300 BCE, only seven main states remained: Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Yan, Wei and Zhao. Some of these built
rammed earth Rammed earth is a technique for constructing foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime, or gravel. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently as a sustainable building method. ...
walls along their frontiers to protect themselves both from the other states and raids by nomadic tribes like the Quanrong and
Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
. Smaller states like Zheng and Song were absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. The “non-Chinese” states of Ba and Shu were both conquered by Qin by 316 BCE.


Qin Empire

Following his unification of China in 221 BCE, the first emperor
Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of "king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor ( ...
eliminated noble titles which did not conform to his legalist system of government; one that believed in merit rather than the privileges of birth. He forced all the vassal leaders to attend the capital where he seized their states and turned them into administrative districts classified as either commanderies or
counties A county is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesChambers Dictionary, L. Brookes (ed.), 2005, Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, Edinburgh in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French ...
depending on their size. The officials who ran the new districts were selected on merit rather than by family connections.


Han dynasty

In the early years of the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
, the commanderies established during the Qin Dynasty once more became vassal states in all but name. Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195) granted virtually autonomous territories to his relatives and a few generals with military prowess. Over time these vassal states grew powerful and presented a threat to the ruler. Eventually, during the reign of Emperor Jing (r. 156–141 BCE), his political advisor
Chao Cuo Chao Cuo (, ca. 200–154 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer. He was a political advisor and official of the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), renowned for his intellectual capabilities and foresight in martial and politic ...
recommended the abolition of all fiefdoms, a policy that led in 154 BCE to the
Rebellion of the Seven States The Rebellion of the Seven States or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms () took place in 154 BC against the Han dynasty of China by its regional semi-autonomous kings, to resist the emperor's attempt to centralize the government further. Background ...
. The Prince of Wu Liu Bi (劉濞) revolted first and was followed by the rulers of six further states. The rebellion continued for three months until it was finally quelled. Later, Emperor Wu further weakened the power of the vassal states by eliminating many fiefdoms and restoring central control over their prefectures and counties.


See also

*
Family tree of ancient Chinese emperors This is a family tree of Chinese monarchs covering the period of the Five Emperors up through the end of the Spring and Autumn period. Five Emperors The legendary Five Emperors were traditionally regarded as the founders of the Chinese state. ...
* ''
Fengjian ''Fēngjiàn'' ( zh, c=封建, l=enfeoffment and establishment) was a political ideology and governance system in ancient China, whose social structure formed a decentralized system of confederation-like government based on the ruling class consis ...
'' *
Chinese nobility The nobility of China was an important feature of the traditional social structure of Ancient China and Imperial China. While the concepts of hereditary sovereign and peerage titles and noble families were featured as early as the semi-mythi ...
* ''
Fanzhen ''Fanzhen'' (), also called ''fangzhen'' (), was a governmental system involving administration through regional governors (''jiedushi''). The term ''fanzhen'' literally means "buffer town", and refers to the strategic settlement of troops in l ...
'' *
Spring and Autumn period The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 770 to 476 BC (or according to some authorities until 403 BC) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period. The period's name derives fr ...
*
Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
*
Eighteen Kingdoms The historiographical term "Eighteen Kingdoms" ( zh, t=十八國), also translated to as "Eighteen States", refers to the eighteen ''fengjian'' states in China created by military leader Xiang Yu in 206 BCE, after the collapse of the Qin dynasty. ...
*
Kings of the Han dynasty After Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu and proclaimed himself emperor of the Han dynasty, he followed the practice of Xiang Yu and enfeoffed many generals, noblemen, and imperial relatives as kings (), the same title borne by the sovereigns of the Shan ...


Notes


References


External links

*{{Commons category-inline .States History of ancient China Former administrative divisions of China Former vassal states History of Imperial China Political geography Zhou dynasty