The Spillover-Crossover model is used in

psychological research Psychological research refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic study and for analysis of the experiences and behaviors of individuals or groups. Their research can have educational, occupational and clinical applications. ...

to examine to impact of the work domain on the home domain, and consequently, the transference of work-related

emotion Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. ...

s from the

employee Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any other ...

to others at home (particularly the partner). The ways in which

well-being Well-being, or wellbeing, also known as wellness, prudential value or quality of life, refers to what is intrinsically valuable relative ''to'' someone. So the well-being of a person is what is ultimately good ''for'' this person, what is in th ...

can be transferred have been categorized into two different mechanisms (;): spillover and crossover.

Spillover

Spillover concerns the transmission of states of well-being from one domain of life to another (). This is a process that takes place at the intra-individual level, thus within one person but across different domains (). The experiences that are transferred from one domain to the other can be either negative or positive.

Work-family conflict: negative spillover

Spillover effects apply to situations in which there is a form of inter-role conflict. That is, being involved in a work-role may put strains on the family role, or vice versa (). This implies that an additional

categorization Categorization is the ability and activity of recognizing shared features or similarities between the elements of the experience of the world (such as Object (philosophy), objects, events, or ideas), organizing and classifying experience by a ...

can be made between two different types of inter-role conflict (). Firstly, work-family conflict (WFC) refers to a situation where the pressures related to the work-role have an unfavorable impact on the family role. Second, family-work conflict (FWC) refers to a situation where the pressures of the family role have an unfavorable impact on the role individuals have at work. An example of a (WFC-) spillover effect would be one in which an individual experiences a need to compromise on

leisure Leisure has often been defined as a quality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as eating and sleeping. Leisure ...

time (i.e. private domain) due to work overload (i.e. work domain). Up till now, numerous studies have found evidence for spillover effects (for a meta-analysis, see;).

Predicting negative spillover

Both dispositional variables (e.g.,

Type A personality Type A and Type B personality hypothesis describes two contrasting personality types. In this hypothesis, personalities that are more competitive, highly organized, ambitious, impatient, highly aware of time management, or aggressive are labeled ...

negative affectivity Negative affectivity (NA), or negative affect, is a personality variable that involves the experience of negative emotions and poor self-concept. Negative affectivity subsumes a variety of negative emotions, including anger, contempt, disgust, gui ...

;), as well as work characteristics have been shown to play a role in work-family conflict (;). Different job demands have been shown to predict WFC, including work-role overload (e.g.;) and work pressure (e.g., ), but also an unfavorable working time schedule (;) and emotional job demands ().

Work-family enrichment/facilitation: positive spillover

Apart from the hampering, negative effects of WFC/FWC-conflicts, positive effects may also occur (). This process is called work-family enrichment or facilitation ().

Predicting positive spillover

Research has shown that, in general, positive spillover is positively related to job resources (e.g.,

social support Social support is the perception and actuality that one is cared for, has assistance available from other people, and most popularly, that one is part of a supportive social network. These supportive resources can be emotional (e.g., nurturance), ...

autonomy In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy, from , ''autonomos'', from αὐτο- ''auto-'' "self" and νόμος ''nomos'', "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one's ...

feedback Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to ''feed back'' into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled ...

;). Also, positive spillover has been related positively to job performance and other outcomes ().

Explaining spillover

One theoretical framework that has been used to explain negative spillover is called the role scarcity hypothesis (). The main argument here is that since people have a limited, fixed amount of

resource Resource refers to all the materials available in our environment which are technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally sustainable and help us to satisfy our needs and wants. Resources can broadly be classified upon their ...

s (e.g., energy, time), problems may arise when different roles draw on these same resources. For example, when both family and work roles draw on the scarce resource of time, it is likely that one of these roles is compromised due to a lack of available time. A different framework, the role expansion hypothesis (), has been used to explain positive spillover. According to this hypothesis, individuals generate resources (e.g., positive mood, skills) and opportunities from the multiple roles they are engaged in. These, in turn, can be used in both life domains to improve functioning and promote growth ().

Crossover

In the process of crossover, the transmission of states of well-being takes place between closely related persons (). This process is characterized by transmission on the inter-individual level (Bakker, Demerouti & Burke, 2009). In other words, the crossover is a dyadic process where states of well-being ‘cross over’ to another individual. Research has shown that this process can entail both the transfer of negative, as well as positive experiences (). An example of a crossover effect would be one in which an individual transfers feelings of

stress Stress may refer to: Science and medicine * Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition * Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...

fatigue Fatigue describes a state of tiredness that does not resolve with rest or sleep. In general usage, fatigue is synonymous with extreme tiredness or exhaustion that normally follows prolonged physical or mental activity. When it does not resolve ...

to his/her partner. Research studies have shown this effect to occur between partners. For example, a study by Demerouti, Bakker and Schaufeli (2005-) indicated that partners of employees suffering from

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may actually develop burnout themselves.

Predicting crossover

It has been shown that crossover is more likely to occur in situations where individuals pay close attention to others (). Also, the crossover is more likely when individuals have self-construals that are focused on being interrelated to others, rather than being unique and independent. Sensitivity and susceptibility to emotional stimuli may also predict crossover (e.g.).

Explaining crossover

Emphatic processes, common

stressor A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus or an event seen as causing stress to an organism. Psychologically speaking, a stressor can be events or environments that individuals might consider demandin ...

s and communication/interaction have been identified by Westman (2006 - ) as potential mechanisms explaining the crossover effect. Finally, the transmission of states of well-being may be mediated by interaction and communication, such as

social undermining Social undermining is the expression of negative emotions directed towards a particular person or negative evaluations of the person as a way to prevent the person from achieving their goals. This behavior can often be attributed to certain feel ...

or a lack of social support.

Combining spillover and crossover: The Spillover-Crossover model

In the Spillover-Crossover model (SCM), research and theories on spillover and crossover are combined, resulting in a model that proposes the following: first, experiences in the work domain spill over to the

family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...

domain (;). Consequently, through

social interaction A social relation or also described as a social interaction or social experience is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more individuals ...

, the experiences cross over from one partner to the other. As explained in the previous sections, this process can concern both positive and negative experiences. Various studies have yielded results that support the SCM. Yet, these research efforts are largely devoted to studying negative spillover and crossover (for an overview, see). One example is the study of Bakker, Demerouti and Dollard (), showing that work roles interfered with family roles when work overload and emotional demands increased. In turn, the intimate partner experienced a higher level of demands at home (e.g., an overload of household tasks), as a result of the negative behaviors of the employee. In the end, the partner experienced higher levels of

exhaustion Fatigue describes a state of tiredness that does not resolve with rest or sleep. In general usage, fatigue is synonymous with extreme tiredness or exhaustion that normally follows prolonged physical or mental activity. When it does not resolve ...

Practical implications

One of the most important implications of the SCM is that employers should not only focus on interventions that mitigate family demands that conflict with work roles (e.g., child care programs, alternative work schedules), but also on practices that impact working conditions (i.e. job demands and resources) and how they influence family life (Bakker, A.B., & Demerouti, E. (in press). The Spillover-Crossover model. In J. Grzywacs & E. Demerouti (Eds.), Work-life balance. Psychology Press.).

References

Psychological models