Southern Pakistan

Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province by population after Punjab. It shares land borders with the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan to the west and north-west and Punjab to the north. It shares International border with the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to the east; it is also bounded by the Arabian Sea to the south. Sindh's landscape consists mostly of alluvial plains flanking the Indus River, the Thar Desert in the eastern portion of the province along the international border with India, and the Kirthar Mountains in the western portion of the province.

The economy of Sindh is the second-largest in Pakistan after the province of Punjab; its provincial capital of Karachi is the most populous city in the country as well as its main financial hub. Sindh is home to a large portion of Pakistan's industrial sector and contains two of the country's busiest commercial seaports: Port Qasim and the Port of Karachi. The remainder of Sindh consists of an agriculture-based economy and produces fruits, consumer items and vegetables for other parts of the country.

Sindh is sometimes referred to as the ''Bab-ul Islam'' (), as it was one of the first regions of the Indian subcontinent to fall under Islamic rule. Parts of the modern-day province were intermittently subject to raids by the Rashidun army during the early Muslim conquests, but the region did not fall under Muslim rule until the Arab invasion of Sind occurred under the Umayyad Caliphate, headed by Muhammad ibn Qasim in 712 CE. Ethnic Sindhi people constitute the largest group in the province; Sindh is also the place of residence for the overwhelming majority of Muhajirs (), a multiethnic group of Indian Muslims who migrated to the region after the Partition of British India in 1947. The province is well known for its distinct culture, which is strongly influenced by Sufism, an important marker of Sindhi identity for both Hindus and Muslims. Several important Sindhi Sufi shrines are located throughout the province and attract millions of devotees annually.

Sindh is prominent for its history during the Bronze Age under the Indus Valley civilization, and is home to two UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites: the Makli Necropolis and Mohenjo-daro who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great referred to the Indus River as '' Indós'', hence the modern ''Indus''. The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as ''hind''. The word ''Sindh'' is a Persian derivative of the Sanskrit term ''Sindhu,'' meaning "river" - a reference to Indus River.

Southworth suggests that the name ''Sindhu'' is in turn derived from ''Cintu'', a Dravidian word for date palm, a tree commonly found in Sindh.

The previous spelling "Sind" (from the Perso-Arabic ) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in Sindh Assembly, and is now spelt "Sindh."

History

Historical Period (7000 BC-1800)

Prehistoric period

Sindh's first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BC. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh, currently in Balochistan, to the west expanded into Sindh. This culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley civilization around 3000 BC.

Indus Valley civilisation

Sindh was the centre of the Indus Valley civilisation, which rivaled the contemporary civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in size and scope, numbering nearly half a million inhabitants at its height with well-planned grid cities and sewer systems.

The primitive village communities in Balochistan were still struggling against a difficult highland environment, a highly cultured people was trying to assert itself at Kot Diji. This was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world. It flourished between the 25th and 15th centuries BC in the Indus valley sites of Mohenjo Daro. The people had a high standard of art and craftsmanship and a well-developed system of quasi-pictographic writing which remains un-deciphered. The ruins of the well planned towns, the brick buildings of the common people, roads, public baths and the covered drainage system suggest a highly organized community.

There is no evidence of large palaces or large tombs for the elite. The grand and presumably holy site might have been the great bath, which is built upon an artificially created elevation. This civilization collapsed around 1700 BC for reasons that are uncertain; the cause is hotly debated and may have been a massive earthquake, which dried up the Ghaggar River. Skeletons discovered in the ruins of Moan Jo Daro ("mount of dead") were thought to indicate that the city was suddenly attacked and the population was wiped out, but further examinations showed that the marks on the skeletons were due to erosion and not of violence.

Early history

The ancient city of Roruka, identified with modern Aror/Rohri, was capital of the Sauvira Kingdom, and finds mentioned early Buddhist literature as a major trading center. Sindh finds mention in the Indian epic ''Mahabharata'' as being part of Bharatvarsha. Sindh was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the sixth century BC. In the late fourth century BC, Sindh was conquered by a mixed army led by Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great. The region remained under control of Greek satraps for only a few decades. After Alexander's death, there was a brief period of Seleucid rule, before Sindh was traded to the Mauryan Empire led by Chandragupta in 305 BC. During the rule of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, the Buddhist religion spread to Sindh.

Mauryan rule ended in 185 BC with the overthrow of the last king by the Shunga Dynasty. In the disorder that followed, Greek rule returned when Demetrius I of Bactria led a Greco-Bactrian invasion of India and annexed most of the northwestern lands, including Sindh. Demetrius was later defeated and killed by a usurper, but his descendants continued to rule Sindh and other lands as the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Under the reign of Menander I, many Indo-Greeks followed his example and converted to Buddhism.

In the late second century BC, Scythian tribes shattered the Greco-Bactrian empire and invaded the Indo-Greek lands. Unable to take the Punjab region, they invaded South Asia through Sindh, where they became known as Indo-Scythians (later Western Satraps). By the first century AD, the Kushan Empire annexed Sindh. Kushans under Kanishka were great patrons of Buddhism and sponsored many building projects for local beliefs. Ahirs were also found in large numbers in Sindh. Abiria country of Abhira tribe was in southern Sindh.

The Kushan Empire was defeated in the mid-3rd century AD by the Sassanid Empire of Persia, who installed vassals known as the Kushanshahs in these far eastern territories. These rulers were defeated by the Kidarites in the late fourth century.

It then came under the Gupta Empire after dealing with the Kidarites. By the late fifth century, attacks by Hephthalite tribes known as the Indo-Hephthalites or ''Hunas'' (Huns) broke through the Gupta Empire's northwestern borders and overran much of northwestern India.

Afterwards, Sindh came under the rule of Emperor Harshavardhan, then the Rai Dynasty around 478. The Rais were overthrown by Chachar of Alor around 632. The Brahman dynasty ruled a vast territory that stretched from Multan in the north to the Rann of Kutch, Alor was their capital.

Arrival of Islam

The connection between the Sindh and Islam was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the Rashidun Caliphate. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year AD 649, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib.MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism and some even participated in the Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali. Under the Umayyads (661 – 750 AD), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah claimed that the Pakistan movement started when the first Muslim put his foot on the soil of Sindh, which he labelled the "Gateway of Islam" in India.

In 712, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley, bringing South Asian societies into contact with Islam. Raja Dahir Sen was a Hindu king that ruled over a Buddhist majority and that Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist Rai Dynasty,Nicholas F. Gier, ''FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES'', presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May 200

Retrieved 11 December 2006. a view questioned by those who note the diffuse and blurred nature of Hindu and Buddhist practices in the region, especially that of the royalty to be patrons of both and those who believe that Chach may have been a Buddhist. The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with the Hindu Jats and other regional governors.

In 711 AD, Muhammad bin Qasim led an Umayyad force of 20,000 cavalry and 5 catapults. Muhammad bin Qasim defeated the Raja Dahir and captured the cities of Alor, Multan and Debal. Sindh became the easternmost State of the Umayyad Caliphate and was referred to as "Sind" on Arab maps, with lands further east known as "Hind". Muhammad bin Qasim built the city of Mansura as his capital; the city then produced famous historical figures such as Abu Mashar Sindhi, Abu Ata al-Sindhi, Abu Raja Sindhi. At the port city of Debal, most of the Bawarij embraced Islam and became known as Sindhi Sailors, who were renowned for their navigation, geography and languages. After Bin Qasim left, the Arab Caliphate ruled Sindh through the Governors.

By the year 750, Debal (modern Karachi) was second only to Basra; Sindhi sailors from the port city of Debal voyaged to Basra, Bushehr, Musqat, Aden, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Sofala, Malabar, Sri Lanka and Java (where Sindhi merchants were known as the Santri). During the Decline of the Abbasid Caliphate in 860s, the Habbari dynasty became semi-independent and was eliminated and Mansura was invaded by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi. Sindh then again became an easternmost client State of the Later Abbasid Caliphs ruled by the Soomro Dynasty until the siege of Baghdad (1258). Mansura was the first capital of the Soomra Dynasty and the last of the Habbari dynasty. Muslim geographers, historians and travelers such as al-Masudi, Ibn Hawqal, Istakhri, Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi, al-Tabari, Baladhuri, Nizami, al-Biruni, Saadi Shirazi, Ibn Battutah and Katip Çelebi wrote about or visited the region, sometimes using the name "Sindh" for the entire area from the Arabian Sea to the Hindu Kush.

Soomra dynasty period

When Sindh was under the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Arab Habbari dynasty was in control. The Umayyads appointed Aziz al Habbari as the governor of Sindh. Habbaris ruled Sindh until Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated the Habbaris in 1024. Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi viewed the Abbasid Caliphate to be the caliphs thus he removed the remaining influence of the Umayyad Caliphate in the region and Sindh fell to Abbasid control following the defeat of the Habbaris. The Abbasid Caliphate then appointed Al Khafif from Samarra; 'Soomro' means 'of Samarra' in Sindhi. The new governor of Sindh was to create a better, stronger and stable government. Once he became the governor, he allotted several key positions to his family and friends; thus Al-Khafif or Sardar Khafif Soomro formed the Soomro Dynasty in Sindh; and became its first ruler. Until the siege of Baghdad (1258), the Soomro dynasty was the Abbasid Caliphate's functionary in Sindh, but after that it became independent.

When the Soomro dynasty lost ties with the Abbasid Caliphate after the siege of Baghdad, the Soomra ruler Dodo-I established their rule from the shores of the Arabian Sea to the Punjab region, Punjab in the north and in the east to Rajasthan and in the west to Pakistani Balochistan. The Soomros were one of the first indigenous Muslim dynasties in Sindh of Parmar Rajput origin. They were the first Muslims to translate the Quran into the Sindhi language. The Soomros created a chivalrous culture in Sindh, which eventually facilitated their rule centred at Mansura. It was later abandoned due to changes in the course of the Puran River; they ruled for the next 95 years until 1351. During this period, Kutch was ruled by the Samma Dynasty, who enjoyed good relations with the Soomras in Sindh. Since the Soomro Dynasty lost its support from the Abbasid Caliphate, the Sultans of Delhi Sultanate, Delhi wanted a piece of Sindh. The Soomros successfully defended their kingdom for about 36 years, but their dynasties soon fell to the might of the Sultanate of Delhi's massive armies such as the Tughluks and the Khalji dynasty, Khaljis.

Samma dynasty period

In 1339 Jam Unar founded a Sindhi Muslim Rajput Samma Dynasty and challenged the Delhi Sultanate, Sultans of Delhi. He used the title of the ''Sultan of Sindh''. The Samma tribe reached its peak during the reign of Jam Nizamuddin II (also known by the nickname Jám Nindó). During his reign from 1461 to 1509, Nindó greatly expanded the new capital of Thatta and its Makli hills, which replaced Debal. He patronized Sindhi art, architecture and culture. The Samma had left behind a popular legacy especially in architecture, music and art. Important court figures included the poet Kazi Kadal, Sardar Darya Khan, Moltus Khan, Makhdoom Bilawal and the theologian Kazi Kaadan. However, Thatta was a port city; unlike garrison towns, it could not mobilize large armies against the Arghun and Tarkhan Mongol invaders, who killed many regional Sindhi Mirs and Amirs loyal to the Samma. Some parts of Sindh still remained under the Sultans of Delhi and the ruthless Arghuns and the Tarkhans sacked Thatta during the rule of Jam Ferozudin.

Migration of Baloch

According to Dr. Akhtar Baloch, Professor at University of Karachi, and Nadeem Wagan, General Manager at HANDS, the Baloch people, Balochi migrated from Balochistan region, Balochistan during the Little Ice Age and settled in Sindh and Punjab. The Little Ice Age is conventionally defined as a period extending from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, (noted in Grove 2004:4). or alternatively, from about 1300Miller ''et al''. 2012. "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks" ''Geophysical Research Letters'' 39, 31 January
abstract (formerly on AGU website)
(accessed via wayback machine 11 July 2015); se
press release on AGU website
(accessed 11 July 2015). to about 1850.Grove, J.M., ''Little Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern,'' Routledge, London (2 volumes) 2004.Matthews, J.A. and Briffa, K.R.
"The 'Little Ice Age': re-evaluation of an evolving concept"
''Geogr. Ann., 87,'' A (1), pp. 17–36 (2005). Retrieved 17 July 2015. According to Professor Baloch, the climate of Balochistan was very cold during this epoch and the region was uninhabitable during the winters so the Baloch people emigrated in waves to Sindh, Pakistan, Sindh and Punjab.

Mughal era

In the year 1524, the few remaining Sindhi Amirs welcomed the Mughal Empire and Babur dispatched his forces to rally the Arghun dynasty, Arghuns and the Tarkhan dynasty, Tarkhans, branches of a Turkic dynasty. In the coming centuries, Sindh became a region loyal to the Mughals, a network of forts manned by cavalry and musketeers further extended Mughal power in Sindh. In 1540 a mutiny by Sher Shah Suri forced the Mughal Emperor Humayun to withdraw to Sindh, where he joined the Sindhi Emir Hussein Umrani. In 1541 Humayun married Hamida Banu Begum, who gave birth to the infant Akbar at Umarkot in the year 1542.

During the reign of Akbar the Great, Sindh produced scholars and others such as Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi, Tahir Muhammad Thattvi and Mir Ali Sir Thattvi and the Mughal chronicler Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak and his brother the poet Faizi was a descendant of a Sindhi Shaikh family from Rel, Siwistan in Sindh. Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak was the author of ''Akbarnama'' (an official biographical account of Akbar) and the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' (a detailed document recording the administration of the Mughal Empire).

Shah Jahan carved a subah (imperial province), covering Sindh, called Thatta after its capital, out of Multan, further bordering on the Ajmer and Gujarat subahs as well as the rival Persian Safavid empire.

During the Kalhora period, Sindhi literature began to flourish and historical figures such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Hazrat Khawaja Muhammad Zaman Luari Sharif, Sulatn-al-Aoliya Muhammad Zaman and Sachal Sarmast became prominent throughout the land. In 1603 Shah Jahan visited the State of Sindh; at Thatta, he was generously welcomed by the locals after the death of his father Jahangir. Shah Jahan ordered the construction of the Shahjahan Mosque, which was completed during the early years of his rule under the supervision of Mirza Ghazi Beg. During his reign, in 1659 in the Mughal Empire, Muhammad Salih Tahtawi of Thatta created a Seam (metallurgy), seamless celestial globe with Arabic and Persian inscriptions using a lost-wax casting, wax casting method.

Sindh was home to several wealthy merchant-rulers such as Mir Bejar of Sindh, whose great wealth had attracted the close ties with the Sultan bin Ahmad of Oman.

Kalhora Nawabs dynasty

In the year 1701, the Kalhora Dynasty, Kalhora Nawabs were authorized in a firman by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to administer Subah (province), subah Sindh.

From 1752 to 1762, Maratha Empire, Marathas collected Chauth or tributes from Sindh, and was administered by 10,000 marathas Maratha power was decimated in the entire region after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. In 1762, Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro brought stability in Sindh, he reorganized and killed all the Marathas and their prominent vassal the ''Rao of Kuch'' in the Thar Desert with the help of Durrani empire. However the Marathas briefly again invaded Sindh in 1772.

Sikh empire

After the Sikhs annexed Multan, the Kalhora Dynasty supported counterattacks against the Sikhs and defined their borders.

In 1783 a firman was issued which designated Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur as the new ''Nawab of Sindh'', and mediated peace particularly after the Battle of Halani and the defeat of the ruling Kalhora by the Talpur Baloch tribes.

Talpurs

The Talpur dynasty was established by members of the Talpur tribe. The Talpur tribes migrated from Dera Ghazi Khan in Punjab to Sindh on the invitation of Kalhora to help them organize unruly Baloch tribes living in Sindh. Talpurs, who learned the Sindhi language, settled in northern Sindh. Very soon they united all the Baloch tribes of Sindh and formed a confederacy against the Kalhora Dynasty.

Four branches of the dynasty were established following the defeat of the Kalhora dynasty at the Battle of Halani in 1743: one ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad, another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur, a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas, and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan. The Talpurs were ethnically Baloch people, Baloch, and Shia Islam, Shia by faith. They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the Presidency armies, forces of the East India Company at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubba, Dubbo. The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during the period colonial rule as the Khairpur (princely state), princely state of Khairpur, whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated in the West Pakistan in 1955.

Modern period (1800–present)

Colonial period

In 1802, when Talpur dynasty, Mir Ghulam Ali Khan Talpur succeeded as the Talpur Nawab, internal tensions broke out in the state. As a result, the following year the Maratha Empire declared war on Sindh and Berar Subah, during which Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, Arthur Wellesley took a leading role causing much early suspicion between the Emirs of Sindh and the Company rule in India, East India Company administration. The East India Company made its first contacts in the Sindhi port city of Thatta, which according to a report was:

"a city as large as London containing 50,000 houses which were made of stone and mortar with large verandahs some three or four stories high ... the city has 3,000 looms ... the textiles of Sindh were the flower of the whole produce of the East, the international commerce of Sindh gave it a place among that of Nations, Thatta has 400 schools and 4,000 Dhows at its docks, the city is guarded by well armed Sepoys".

Bengal Presidency forces under General Charles James Napier arrived in Sindh in the mid-19th century and captured Sindh in February 1843. The Baloch coalition led by Talpur under Talpur dynasty, Mir Nasir Khan Talpur was defeated at the Battle of Miani during which 5,000 Talpur Baloch were killed in action. Shortly afterwards, Hoshu Sheedi commanded another army at the Battle of Dubba, Battle of Dubbo, where 5,000 Baloch were also killed in action.

The first Aga Khan I, Agha Khan, who was escaping persecution in Persia and looking for an ally, helped the East India Company in their capture of Sindh. As a result, he was granted a lifetime pension.

A British journal by Thomas Postans mentions the Sindhi Amirs as Prisoner of war, prisoners of war: "The Amirs as being the prisoners of 'Her Majesty'... they are maintained in strict seclusion; they are described as Broken-Hearted and Miserable men, maintaining much of the dignity of fallen greatness, and without any querulous or angry complaining at this unlivable source of sorrow, refusing to be comforted". Within weeks, Charles Napier and his forces occupied Sindh.

After 1853, the Company administration divided Sindh into districts and later made it part of the Bombay Presidency.

In the year 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned ''Narayan Jagannath Vaidya'' to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi, with the ''Khudabadi script''. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which twelve separate periods of martial law were imposed by the colonial government.

During the period of Company rule in India, Company rule,the city saw the rise of nationalist leaders such as Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi, who pioneered the Sindhi Muslim Hurs, Hur Movement. He was hanged on 20March 1943 in Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad, Sindh. His burial place is unknown.

During the colonial period, railways, printing presses and bridges were introduced in the province. Writers like Mirza Kalich Beg compiled and traced the literary history of Sindh. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook,Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, ''South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies'', 39:4, 775, the mostly Muslim peasantry was oppressed by the Hindu moneylending class and also by the landed Muslim elite. Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus.Ansari, p. 77.

By 1936 Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency. Elections in 1937 resulted in local Sindhi Muslim parties winning the bulk of seats. By the mid-1940s the Muslim League (Pakistan), Muslim League gained a foothold in the province and after winning over the support of local Sufi ''pirs'', it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan.

Modern period

Prior to its struggle for Pakistan during colonial period, in 1947 Sindh joined Pakistan after Muslim League's major 1945 Indian general election, victory against Indian National Congress at first it was proposed that the eastern half of Sindh (Tharparkar Region or simply Thar) was to be carved out from Sindh and be given to India due to its majority Hindu population, but that plan was never made official and Sindh as a whole was acceded to Pakistan.

When Sindh joined Pakistan in 1947 it comprised three polities: Karachi (Then Federal Capital of Pakistan), Sind Province (1936–1955), Sind Province (Inherited from British India) and Khairpur (Princely State), in 1955 when One Unit Policy was implemented all of these 3 polities merged to form West Pakistan however in 1970 when One Unit Policy was abolished a single, united province of Sindh came into being with Karachi as its capital

Population

Demographics

Sindh has the second highest List of Pakistani Districts by Human Development Index, Human Development Index out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628. The 2017 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 47.9 million.

The major ethnic group of the province is the Sindhis, but there is also a significant presence of other groups. Baloch of Sindh, Sindhis of Baloch origin make up about 30% of the total Sindhi population (although they speak Sindhi or Saraiki as their native tongue), while Urdu language, Urdu-speaking Muhajirs (Pakistan), Muhajirs make up over 19% of the total population of the province, while Punjabi people, Punjabi are 10% and Pashtun people, Pashtuns represent 7%.

In August 1947, before the partition of India, the total population of Sindh was 3,887,070 out of which 2,832,000 (around 73%) were Muslims, 1,015,000 (around 26%) were Hindus and the remaining were Sikhs and Jains.

Religion

Islam in Sindh has a long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 CE. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up over 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as the Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend which highlights the strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried on Makli Hill near Thatta. The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the 16th century two Sufi tareeqat (orders) – Qadria and Naqshbandia – were introduced in Sindh. Sufism continues to play an important role in the daily lives of Sindhis.

Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage of Hinduism in Pakistan, Hindu overall, which accounts 8.7% of the population, roughly around 4.2 million people, and 13.3% of the province's rural population as per 2017 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, scheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas), and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under the main Hindu category. Although, Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of the region's population. Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. The Ramapir Temple Tando Allahyar, Shri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh. Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have a separate law for governing Hindu marriage laws in Pakistan, Hindu marriages.

There are approximately 10,000 Sikhs in Sindh.

Languages

According to the 2017 census, the most widely spoken language in the province is Sindhi language, Sindhi, the first language of % of the population. It is followed by Urdu (%), Pashto (%), Punjabi language, Punjabi (%), Saraiki language, Saraiki (%), Balochi language, Balochi (2%) and Hindko ().

Other minority languages include Kutchi language, Kutchi, Gujarati language, Gujarati, Aer language, Aer, Bagri language, Bagri, Bhaya language, Bhaya, Brahui language, Brahui, Dhatki language, Dhatki, Ghera language, Ghera, Goaria language, Goaria, Gurgula language, Gurgula, Jadgali language, Jadgali, Jandavra language, Jandavra, Jogi language, Jogi, Kabutra language, Kabutra, Kachi Koli, Parkari Koli language, Parkari Koli, Wadiyari Koli, Loarki language, Loarki, Marwari language, Marwari, Sansi language, Sansi, and Vaghri language, Vaghri.

Karachi city is Pakistan's most multiethnic city. Urdu-speakers form a plurality, while Pashtos are the second-largest group. Sindhis themselves are 8.1% of the population in Karachi, a number that has increased due to migration of rural Sindhis to the city for work.

Geography and nature

Sindh is in the western corner of South Asia, bordering the Iranian plateau in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about from north to south and (extreme) or (average) from east to west, with an area of of Pakistani territory. Sindh is bounded by the Thar Desert to the east, the Kirthar Mountains to the west and the Arabian Sea and Rann of Kutch to the south. In the centre is a fertile plain along the Indus River.

Sindh is divided into three main geographical regions: ''Siro'' ("upper country"), aka Upper Sindh, which is above Sehwan; ''Vicholo'' ("middle country"), or Middle Sindh, from Sehwan to Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad; and ''Lāṟu'' ("sloping, descending country"), or Lower Sindh, mostly consisting of the Indus Delta below Hyderabad.

Flora

The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, ''Acacia Rupestris'' (kher), and ''Tecomella undulata'' (Rohida, lohirro) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the ''Acacia nilotica'' (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The ''Azadirachta indica'' (neem) (nim), ''Zizyphys vulgaris'' (bir) (ber), ''Tamarix orientalis'' (jujuba lai) and ''Capparis aphylla'' (kirir) are among the more common trees.

Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of ''Avicennia tomentosa'' (timmer) and ''Ceriops tagal, Ceriops candolleana'' (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in the lower Sindh region.

Fauna

Among the wild animals, the Sindh ibex (sareh), blackbuck, wild sheep (Urial or gadh) and Asian black bear, wild bear are found in the western rocky range. The leopard is now rare and the Asiatic cheetah extinct. The Fishing cat, Pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing. Chinkara, Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do the Striped hyena (charakh), jackal, fox, porcupine, mongoose, common gray mongoose and hedgehog. The Sindhi phekari, red lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. There are bats, lizards and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper) and the mysterious Sindh krait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck the victim's breath in his sleep.
Some unusual sightings of Asian cheetah occurred in 2003 near the Balochistan border in Kirthar Mountains. The rare houbara bustard find Sindh's warm climate suitable to rest and mate. Unfortunately, it is hunted by locals and foreigners.

Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus, eastern Nara channel and Karachi backwater. Besides a large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale and skates frequent the seas along the Sindh coast. The Pallo (Sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn. The Indus river dolphin is among the most endangered species in Pakistan and is found in the part of the Indus river in northern Sindh. Indian hog deer, Hog deer and Asian black bear, wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt.

Although Sindh has a semi arid climate, through its coastal and riverine forests, its huge fresh water lakes and mountains and deserts, Sindh supports a large amount of varied wildlife. Due to the semi-arid climate of Sindh the left out forests support an average population of jackals and snakes. The national parks established by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with many organizations such as World Wide Fund for Nature and Sindh Wildlife Department support a huge variety of animals and birds. The Kirthar National Park in the Kirthar range spreads over more than 3000 km² of desert, stunted tree forests and a lake. The KNP supports Sindh ibex, wild sheep (urial) and Asian black bear, black bear along with the rare leopard. There are also occasional sightings of The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat. There is a project to introduce tigers and Asian elephants too in KNP near the huge Hub Dam Lake. Between July and November when the monsoon winds blow onshore from the ocean, giant olive ridley turtles lay their eggs along the seaward side. The turtles are protected species. After the mothers lay and leave them buried under the sands the SWD and WWF officials take the eggs and protect them until they are hatched to keep them from predators.

Climate

Sindh lies in a tropical to subtropical region; it is hot in the summer and mild to warm in winter. Temperatures frequently rise above between May and August, and the minimum average temperature of occurs during December and January in the northern and higher elevated regions. The annual rainfall averages about seven inches, falling mainly during July and August. The southwest monsoon wind begins in mid-February and continues until the end of September, whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January.

Sindh lies between the two monsoons—the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon, deflected towards it by the Himalayas, Himalayan mountains—and escapes the influence of both. The region's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice a year, caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season.

Sindh is divided into three climatic regions: Siro (the upper region, centred on Jacobabad), Wicholo (the middle region, centred on Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad), and Lar (the lower region, centred on Karachi). The thermal equator passes through upper Sindh, where the air is generally very dry. Central Sindh's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh. Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during the summer. Central Sindh's maximum temperature typically reaches . Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter, with lower rainfall than Central Sindh. Lower Sindh's maximum temperature reaches about . In the Kirthar range at and higher at Gorakh Hill and other peaks in Dadu District, temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall is received in the winters.

Major cities

Government

Sindh province

The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is a unicameral and consists of 168 seats, of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is Karachi. The Government of Sindh, provincial government is led by Chief Minister of Sindh, Chief Minister who is directly elected by the Elections in Pakistan, popular and landslide votes; the Governor of Sindh, Governor serves as a ceremonial representative nominated and appointed by the President of Pakistan. The administrative boss of the province who is in charge of the bureaucracy is the Chief Secretary Sindh, who is appointed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Most of the influential Sindhi tribes in the province are involved in political families of Pakistan, Pakistan's politics.

In addition, Sindh's politics leans towards the Left-wing politics, left-wing and its political culture serves as a dominant place for the Socialism in Pakistan, left-wing spectrum in the country. The province's trend towards the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and away from the Pakistan Muslim League (N) can be seen in nationwide Elections in Pakistan, general elections, in which Sindh is a stronghold of the PPP. The PML(N) has a limited support due to its Conservatism in Pakistan, centre-right agenda.

In metropolitan cities such as Karachi and Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad, the Muttahida Qaumi Movement – Pakistan, MQM (another party of the left with the support of Indian Muslims in Pakistan, ''Muhajirs'') has a considerable vote bank and support. Minor leftist parties such as the Awami Tehreek, People's Movement also found support in rural areas of the province.

Divisions

In 2008, after the public elections, the new government decided to restore the structure of Divisions of all provinces. In Sindh after the lapse of the Local Governments Bodies term in 2010 the Divisional Commissioners system was to be restored.

In July 2011, following excessive July 2011 Karachi target killings, violence in the city of Karachi and after the political split between the ruling PPP and the majority party in Sindh, the MQM and after the resignation of the MQM Governor of Sindh, PPP and the Government of Sindh decided to restore the commissionerate system in the province. As a consequence, the five divisions of Sindh were restored – namely Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, Mirpurkhas and Larkana with their respective districts. Subsequently, two new divisions have been added in Sindh, Banbore and Nawab Shah/Shaheed Benazirabad division.

Karachi district has been de-merged into its five original constituent districts: Karachi East District, Karachi East, Karachi West District, Karachi West, Karachi Central District, Karachi Central, Karachi South District, Karachi South and Malir District, Malir. Recently Korangi has been upgraded to the status of the sixth district of Karachi. These six districts form the Karachi Division now. In 2020, the Kemari District was created after splitting Karachi West District. Currently the Sindh government is planning to divide the Tharparkar district into Tharparkar and Chhachro district.

Districts

Lower-level subdivisions

In Sindh, talukas are equivalent to the tehsils used elsewhere in the country, supervisory tapas correspond with the kanungo circles used elsewhere, tapas correspond with the patwar circles used in other provinces, and dehs are equivalent to the mouzas used elsewhere.

Economy

Education

The following is a chart of the education market of Sindh estimated by the government in 1998:

Major public and private educational institutes in Sindh include:

* Adamjee Government Science College
* Aga Khan University
* APIIT
* Applied Economics Research Centre
* Bahria University
* Baqai Medical University
* Chandka Medical College, Chandka Medical College Larkana
* Cadet College Petaro
* College of Digital Sciences
* College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan
* COMMECS Institute of Business and Emerging Sciences
* D. J. Science College
* Dawood University of Engineering & Technology
* Defence Authority Degree College for Men
* Dow International Medical College
* Dow University of Health Sciences
* Fatima Jinnah Dental College
* Federal Urdu University
* GBELS Dourai Mahar Taluka Daur Distt: Shaheed Benazirabad
* Ghulam Muhammad Mahar Medical College Sukkur
* Government College for Men Nazimabad
* Government College Hyderabad
* Government College of Commerce & Economics
* Government College of Technology, Karachi
* Government Degree College Matiari
* Government High School Ranipur
* Government Islamia Science College Sukkur
* Government Muslim Science College Hyderabad
* Government National College (Karachi)
* Greenwich University (Karachi)
* Hamdard University
* Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry
* Imperial Science College Nawabshah
* Indus Valley Institute of Art and Architecture
* Institute of Business Administration, Karachi
* Institute of Business Administration, Sukkar
* Institute of Business Management
* Institute of Industrial Electronics Engineering
* Institute of Sindhology
* Iqra University
* Islamia Science College (Karachi)
* Isra University Hyderabad
* Jinnah Medical & Dental College
* Jinnah Polytechnic Institute
* Jinnah Post Graduate Medical Centre
* Jinnah University for Women
* KANUPP Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering
* Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology
* Karachi School of Business and Leadership
* Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences
* Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
* Mohammad Ali Jinnah University
* National Academy of Performing Arts
* National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences
* National University of Modern Languages
* National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan, National University of Sciences and Technology
* NED University of Engineering and Technology
* Ojha Institute of Chest Diseases
* PAF Institute of Aviation Technology
* TES Public School, Daur
* Pakistan Navy Engineering College
* Pakistan Shipowners' College
* Pakistan Steel Cadet College
* Peoples Medical College for Girls Nawabshah
* PIA Training Centre Karachi
* Provincial Institute of Teachers Education Nawabshah
* Public School Hyderabad
* Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology, Nawabshah
* Rana Liaquat Ali Khan Government College of Home Economics
* Saint Patrick's College, Karachi
* Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai University
* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Medical College
* Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology
* Sindh Agriculture University
* Sindh Medical College
* Superior College of Science Hyderabad
* Sindh Muslim Law College
* Sir Syed Government Girls College
* Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology
* St. Joseph's College (Karachi), St. Joseph's College
* Sukkur Institute of Science & Technology
* Textile Institute of Pakistan
* University of Karachi
* University of Sindh
* Usman Institute of Technology
* Ziauddin Medical University

Culture

The rich culture, art and architectural landscape of Sindh have fascinated historians. The culture, folktales, art and music of Sindh form a mosaic of human history.

Cultural heritage

Sindh has a rich heritage of traditional handicraft that has evolved over the centuries. Perhaps the most professed exposition of Sindhi culture is in the handicrafts of Haala, Hala, a town some 30 kilometres from Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad. Hala's artisans manufacture high-quality and impressively priced wooden handicrafts, textiles, paintings, handmade paper products, and blue pottery. Lacquered wood works known as Jandi, painting on wood, tiles, and pottery known as Kashi, hand weaved textiles including ''khadi'', ''susi'', and ''ajraks'' are synonymous with Sindhi culture preserved in Hala's handicraft.

The work of Sindhi artisans was sold in ancient markets of Damascus, Baghdad, Basra, Istanbul, Cairo and Samarkand. Referring to the lacquer work on wood locally known as Jandi, T. Posten (an English traveller who visited Sindh in the early 19th century) asserted that the articles of Hala could be compared with exquisite specimens of China. Technological improvements such as the spinning wheel (Charkha (spinning wheel), charkha) and treadle (pai-chah) in the weaver's loom were gradually introduced and the processes of designing, dyeing and printing by block were refined. The refined, lightweight, colourful, washable fabrics from Hala became a luxury for people used to the woollens and linens of the age.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the World Wildlife Fund, Pakistan, play an important role to promote the culture of Sindh. They provide training to women artisans in Sindh so they get a source of income. They promote their products under the name of "Crafts Forever". Many women in rural Sindh are skilled in the production of caps. Sindhi caps are manufactured commercially on a small scale at New Saeedabad and Hala New. Sindhi people began celebrating Sindhi Topi Day on 6 December 2009, to preserve the historical culture of Sindh by wearing Ajrak and Sindhi topi.

Tourism

File:Sukkur bridge hdr.jpg, Sukkur Bridge
File:Gorakh Hill Morning.jpg, Gorakh Hill, Gorakh Hill Station
File:FaizMahal.jpg, Faiz Mahal, Khairpur, Pakistan, Khairpur
File:Rani Kort Wall & Forte View.jpg, Ranikot Fort, one of the largest forts in the world
File:PK Chaukhandi Necropolis near Karachi asv2020-02 img09.jpg, Chaukhandi tombs
File:Bhodesar temple, Nagarparkar.JPG, Remains of 9th century Jainism, Jain Nagarparkar Jain Temples, temple in Bhodesar near Nagarparkar.
File:Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg, Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro
File:Bakirwarolake.jpg, Bakri Waro Lake, Khairpur
File:PK Karachi asv2020-02 img32 National Museum.jpg, National Museum of Pakistan
File:PK Kirthar NP asv2020-02 img18.jpg, Kirthar National Park
File:Karoonjhar Mountains.jpg, alt=Karoonjhar Mountains, Tharparkar, Karoonjhar Mountains, Tharparkar
File:Shahjahan mosque.jpg, Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta
File:Mausoleum of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai 05.jpg, Tomb of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai
File:Keenjhar Lake view 1.jpg, Keenjhar Lake
File:Shrine Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Sehwan Shareed, Pakistan.jpg, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar

See also

* Arab Sind
* Bagh Prints
* Brahma from Mirpur-Khas
* Debal
* Institute of Sindhology
* List of cities in Sindh
* List of cities in Sindh by population
* List of cultural heritage sites in Sindh
* List of medical schools in Sindh
* List of districts of Pakistan
* List of Sindhi people
* Sindhi clothing
* Provincial Highways of Sindh
* Sindh cricket team
* Mansura, Sindh
* Mohenjodaro
* Muhajir Sooba
* Sind Division
* Sindhu Kingdom
* Sufism in Sindh
* Tomb paintings of Sindh

References

111 Asad Umar takes charge as Chief Secretary on 5 August 2018.

Bibliography

* Ansari, Sarah F.D. (1992) ''Sufi saints and state power: the pirs of Sind, 1843–1947'', No. 50. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. .
*
*

External links

Sindh Transport Department official website

Government of Sindh

* Guide o
Sindh



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{{Authority control

Sindh,
Provinces of Pakistan
States and territories established in 1970
1970 establishments in Pakistan
Sindhi-speaking countries and territories
Populated places established in the 7th millennium BC
7th-millennium BC establishments