Solomon Ibn Gabirol
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Solomon ibn Gabirol or Solomon ben Judah ( he, ר׳ שְׁלֹמֹה בֶּן יְהוּדָה אִבְּן גָּבִּירוֹל, Shlomo Ben Yehuda ibn Gabirol, ; ar, أبو أيوب سليمان بن يحيى بن جبيرول, ’Abū ’Ayyūb Sulaymān bin Yaḥyá bin Jabīrūl, ) was an 11th-century Andalusian
poet A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral or writte ...
and
Jewish philosopher Jewish philosophy () includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or in relation to the religion of Judaism. Until modern ''Haskalah'' (Jewish Enlightenment) and Jewish emancipation, Jewish philosophy was preoccupied with attempts to reconcile ...
in the
Neo-Platonic Neoplatonism is a strand of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a chain of thinkers. But there are some ide ...
tradition. He published over a hundred poems, as well as works of biblical exegesis, philosophy, ethics and satire. One source credits ibn Gabirol with creating a
golem A golem ( ; he, , gōlem) is an animated, Anthropomorphism, anthropomorphic being in Jewish folklore, which is entirely created from inanimate matter (usually clay or mud). The most famous golem narrative involves Judah Loew ben Bezalel, the l ...
, possibly female, for household chores. In the 19th century it was discovered that medieval translators had Latinized Gabirol's name to Avicebron or Avencebrol and had translated his work on Jewish Neo-Platonic philosophy into a Latin form that had in the intervening centuries been highly regarded as a work of Islamic or Christian scholarship. As such, ibn Gabirol is well known in the history of philosophy for the doctrine that all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form ("Universal
Hylomorphism Hylomorphism (also hylemorphism) is a philosophical theory developed by Aristotle, which conceives every physical entity or being (''ousia'') as a compound of matter (potency) and immaterial form (act), with the generic form as immanently real ...
"), and for his emphasis on divine will.


Biography

Little is known of Gabirol's life, and some sources give contradictory information. Sources agree that he was born in
Málaga Málaga (, ) is a municipality of Spain, capital of the Province of Málaga, in the autonomous community of Andalusia. With a population of 578,460 in 2020, it is the second-most populous city in Andalusia after Seville and the sixth most pop ...
, but are unclear whether in late 1021 or early 1022 CE. The year of his death is a matter of dispute, with conflicting accounts having him dying either before age 30 or by age 48. Gabirol lived a life of material comfort, never having to work to sustain himself, but he lived a difficult and loveless life, suffering ill health, misfortunes, fickle friendships, and powerful enemies. From his teenage years, he suffered from some disease, possibly
lupus vulgaris Lupus vulgaris (also known as tuberculosis luposa) are painful cutaneous tuberculosis skin lesions with nodular appearance, most often on the face around the nose, eyelids, lips, cheeks, ears and neck. It is the most common ''Mycobacterium tuberc ...
, that would leave him embittered and in constant pain. He indicates in his poems that he considered himself short and ugly. Of his personality,
Moses ibn Ezra Rabbi Moses ben Jacob ibn Ezra, known as Ha-Sallaḥ ("writer of penitential prayers") ( ar, أَبُو هَارُون مُوسَى بِن يَعْقُوب اِبْن عَزْرَا, ''Abu Harun Musa bin Ya'qub ibn 'Azra'', he, מֹשֶׁה ב ...
wrote: "his irascible temperament dominated his intellect, nor could he rein the demon that was within himself. It came easily to him to lampoon the great, with salvo upon salvo of mockery and sarcasm." He has been described summarily as "a social misfit." Gabirol's writings indicate that his father was a prominent figure in Córdoba, but was forced to relocate to Málaga during a political crisis in 1013. Gabirol's parents died while he was a child, leaving him an orphan with no siblings or close relatives. He was befriended, supported and protected by a prominent political figure of the time, Yekutiel ibn Hassan al-Mutawakkil ibn Qabrun, and moved to
Zaragoza Zaragoza, also known in English as Saragossa,''Encyclopædia Britannica'"Zaragoza (conventional Saragossa)" is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributari ...
, then an important center of Jewish culture. Gabirol's anti-social temperament, occasionally boastful poetry, and sharp wit earned him powerful enemies, but as long as Jekuthiel lived, Gabirol remained safe from them and was able to freely immerse himself in study of the Talmud, grammar, geometry, astronomy, and philosophy. However, when Gabirol was seventeen years old, his benefactor was assassinated as the result of a political conspiracy, and by 1045 Gabirol found himself compelled to leave Zaragoza. He was then sponsored by no less than the grand vizier and top general to the kings of
Granada Granada (,, DIN 31635, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the fo ...
, Samuel ibn Naghrillah (Shmuel HaNaggid). Gabirol made ibn Naghrillah an object of praise in his poetry until an estrangement arose between them and ibn Naghrillah became the butt of Gabirol's bitterest irony. It seems Gabirol never married, and that he spent the remainder of his life wandering. Gabirol had become an accomplished poet and philosopher at an early age: * By age 17, he had composed five of his known poems, one an azhara ("I am the master, and Song is my slave") enumerating all 613 commandments of
Judaism Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the ...
. * At age 17, he composed a 200-verse elegy for his friend Yekutiel and four other notable elegies to mourn the death of
Hai Gaon Hai ben Sherira (Hebrew: האי/י בר שרירא) better known as Hai Gaon (Hebrew: האי/י גאון, חאיי גאון), was a medieval Jewish theologian, rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon (Hebrew), Gaon of the Talmudic Academies in Babylo ...
. * By age 19, he had composed a 400-verse alphabetical and acrostic poem teaching the rules of Hebrew grammar. * By age 23 or 25, he had composed, in Arabic, "Improvement of the Moral Qualities" ( ar, كتاب إصلاح الأخلاق, translated into Hebrew by
Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon (1120 – after 1190) was a translator and physician. Born in Granada, he left Spain in 1150, probably on account of persecution by the Almohades, and went to Lunel in southern France. Benjamin of Tudela mentions him as ...
as he, תקון מדות הנפש * At around age 25, or not, he may have composed his collection of proverbs ''Mivchar Pninim'' (lit. "Choice of Pearls"), although scholars are divided on his authorship. * At around age 28, or not, he composed his philosophical work '' Fons Vitæ''. As mentioned above, the conflicting accounts of Gabirol's death have him dying either before age 30 or by age 48. The opinion of earliest death, that he died before age 30, is believed to be based upon a misreading of medieval sources. The remaining two opinions are that he died either in 1069 or 1070, or around 1058 in
Valencia Valencia ( va, València) is the capital of the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Valencian Community, Valencia and the Municipalities of Spain, third-most populated municipality in Spain, with 791,413 inhabitants. It is ...
. As to the circumstances of his death, one legend claims that he was trampled to death by an Arab horseman. A second legend relates that he was murdered by a Muslim poet who was jealous of Gabirol's poetic gifts, and who secretly buried him beneath the roots of a fig tree. The tree bore fruit in abundant quantity and of extraordinary sweetness. Its uniqueness excited attention and provoked an investigation. The resulting inspection of the tree uncovered Gabirol's remains, and led to the identification and execution of the murderer.


Historical identity

Though Gabirol's legacy was esteemed throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance periods, it was historically minimized by two errors of scholarship that mis-attributed his works.


False ascription as King Solomon

Gabirol seems to have often been called "the Málagan", after his place of birth, and would occasionally so refer to himself when encrypting his signature in his poems (e.g. in "שטר עלי בעדים", he embeds his signature as an acrostic in the form "אני שלמה הקטן ברבי יהודה גבירול מאלקי חזק" – meaning: "I am young Solomon, son of Rabi Yehuda, from Malaqa, Hazak"). While in
Modern Hebrew Modern Hebrew ( he, עברית חדשה, ''ʿivrít ḥadašá ', , '' lit.'' "Modern Hebrew" or "New Hebrew"), also known as Israeli Hebrew or Israeli, and generally referred to by speakers simply as Hebrew ( ), is the standard form of the He ...
the city is also called Málaga ( he, מאלגה), that is in deference to its current
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
pronunciation. In Gabirol's day, when it was ruled by Arabic speakers, it was called ''Mālaqa'' ( ar, مالقة), as it is to this day by Arabic speakers. The 12th-century Arab philosopher
Jabir ibn Aflah Abū Muḥammad Jābir ibn Aflaḥ ( ar, أبو محمد جابر بن أفلح, la, Geber/Gebir; 1100–1150) was an Arab Muslim astronomer and mathematician from Seville, who was active in 12th century al-Andalus. His work ''Iṣlāḥ al-Ma ...
misinterpreted manuscript signatures of the form "שלמה ... יהודה ... אלמלאק" to mean "Solomon ... the Jew .. the king", and so ascribed to Solomon some seventeen philosophical essays of Gabirol. The 15th-century Jewish philosopher
Yohanan Alemanno Yohanan Alemanno (born in Constantinople or in Mantua, c. 1435 – died after 1504) was an Italian Jewish rabbi, noted Kabbalist, humanist philosopher, and exegete, and teacher of the Hebrew language to Italian humanists including Pico della M ...
imported that error back into the Hebrew canon, and added another four works to the list of false ascriptions.


Identification as Avicebron

In 1846,
Solomon Munk Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah ( Hebrew: , Modern: , Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yah"), was a monarch of ancient Israel and the son and succe ...
discovered among the
Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
manuscripts in the
French National Library French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
in
Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...
a work by
Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera Shem-Tov ben Joseph ibn Falaquera, also spelled Palquera ( he, שם טוב בן יוסף אבן פלקירה; 1225 – c. 1290) was a Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet and commentator. A vast body of work is attributed to Falaquera, includi ...
. Comparing it with a
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
work by Avicebron entitled '' Fons Vitæ'', Munk proved them to both excerpt an
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
original of which the ''Fons Vitæ'' was evidently the translation. Munk concluded that Avicebron or Avencebrol, who had for centuries been believed to be a Christian or Arabic Muslim philosopher, was instead identical with the Jewish Solomon ibn Gabirol. The centuries-long confusion was in part due to a content feature atypical in Jewish writings: ''Fons Vitæ'' exhibits an independence of Jewish religious dogma and does not cite Biblical verses or Rabbinic sources. The progression in the Latinization of Gabirol's name seems to have been ibn Gabirol, Ibngebirol, Avengebirol. Avengebrol, Avencebrol, Avicebrol, and finally Avicebron. Some sources still refer to him as Avicembron, Avicenbrol, or Avencebrol.


Philosophy

Gabirol, in his poem "כשרש עץ" (line 24), claims to have written twenty philosophical works. Through scholarly deduction (see above), we know their titles, but we have the texts of only two. Gabirol made his mark on the history of philosophy under his alias as Avicebron, one of the first teachers of Neo-Platonism in
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
, and author of '' Fons Vitæ'' . As such, he is best known for the doctrine that all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form (“Universal
Hylomorphism Hylomorphism (also hylemorphism) is a philosophical theory developed by Aristotle, which conceives every physical entity or being (''ousia'') as a compound of matter (potency) and immaterial form (act), with the generic form as immanently real ...
”), and for his emphasis on divine will. His role has been compared to that of
Philo Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. Philo's de ...
: both were ignored by their fellow Jews, but exercised considerable influence upon Gentiles (Philo upon primitive Christianity, Gabirol upon medieval Christian scholasticism); and both served as cultural intermediaries (Philo between Hellenistic philosophy and the Oriental world; Gabirol between Greco-Arabic philosophy and the Occident).


''Fons Vitæ''

''Fons Vitæ'', originally written in Arabic under the title ''Yanbu' al-Hayat'' ( ar, ينبوع الحياة) and later translated into Hebrew by Ibn Tibbon as he, מקור חיים, , lit. "Source of Life", (cf. ) is a Neo-Platonic philosophical dialogue between master and disciple on the nature of Creation and how understanding what we are (our nature) can help us know how to live (our purpose). "His goal is to understand the nature of being and human being so that he might better understand and better inspire the pursuit of knowledge and the doing of good deeds." The work stands out in the history of philosophy for introducing the doctrine that all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form, and for its emphasis on divine will. ::Student: What is the purpose of man? ::Teacher: The inclination of his soul to the higher world in order that everyone might return to his like. ::(''Fons'' ''Vitæ'' 1.2, p. 4, lines 23–25) In the closing sentences of the Fons ''Vitæ'' (5.43, p. 338, line 21), ibn Gabirol further describes this state of “return” as a liberation from death and a cleaving to the source of life. The work was originally composed in Arabic, of which no copies are extant. It was preserved for the ages by a translation into Latin in the year 1150 by
Abraham ibn Daud Abraham ibn Daud ( he, אַבְרָהָם בֵּן דָּוִד הַלֵּוִי אִבְּן דָּאוּד; ar, ابراهيم بن داود) was a Spanish-Jewish astronomer, historian, and philosopher; born at Córdoba, Spain about 1110; die ...
and
Dominicus Gundissalinus Dominicus Gundissalinus, also known as Domingo Gundisalvi or Gundisalvo ( 1115 – post 1190), was a philosopher and translator of Arabic to Medieval Latin active in Toledo. Among his translations, Gundissalinus worked on Avicenna's ''Liber de phil ...
, who was the first official director of the
Toledo School of Translators The Toledo School of Translators ( es, Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) is the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the Judeo-Islamic philosophies and scientific w ...
, a scholastic
philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...
, and the
archdeacon An archdeacon is a senior clergy position in the Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, St Thomas Christians, Eastern Orthodox churches and some other Christian denominations, above that o ...
of
Segovia, Spain Segovia ( , , ) is a city in the autonomous community of Castile and León, Spain. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the Province of Segovia. Segovia is in the Inner Plateau (''Meseta central''), near the northern slopes of t ...
. In the 13th century, Shem Tov ibn Falaquera wrote a summary of ''Fons'' ''Vitæ'' in Hebrew, and only in 1926 was the full Latin text translated into Hebrew. ''Fons Vitæ'' consists of five sections: # matter and form in general and their relation in physical substances ( la, substantiæ corporeæ sive compositæ); # the substance which underlies the corporeality of the world ( la, de substantia quæ sustinet corporeitatem mundi); # proofs of the existence of intermediaries between God and the physical world ( la, substantiæ simplices, lit. "intelligibiles"); # proofs that these "intelligibiles" are likewise constituted of matter and form; # universal matter and universal form. ''Fons Vitæ'' posits that the basis of existence and the source of life in every created thing is a combination of "matter" ( la, materia universalis) and "form". The doctrine of matter and form informed the work's subtitle: "''De Materia et Forma.''" Its chief doctrines are: # everything that exists may be reduced to three categories: ## God; ## matter and form (i.e. Creation); ## will (an intermediary). # All created beings are constituted of form and matter. # This holds true for both the physical world ( la, substantiis corporeis sive compositis) and the spiritual world ( la, substantiis spiritualibus sive simplicibus), which latter are the connecting link between the first substance (i.e. the Godhead, la, essentia prima) and the physical world ( la, substantia, quæ sustinet novem prædicamenta, lit. "substance divided into nine categories"). # Matter and form are always and everywhere in the relation of "''sustinens''" and "''sustentatum''", "''propriatum''" and "''proprietas''": substratum and property or attribute.


Influence within Judaism

Though Gabirol as a philosopher was ignored by the Jewish community, Gabirol as a poet was not, and through his poetry, he introduced his philosophical ideas. His best-known poem, ''Keter Malkut'' ("Royal Crown"), is a philosophical treatise in poetical form, the "double" of the ''Fons Vitæ''. For example, the eighty-third line of the poem points to one of the teachings of the ''Fons Vitæ''; namely, that all the attributes predicated of God exist apart in thought alone and not in reality.
Moses ibn Ezra Rabbi Moses ben Jacob ibn Ezra, known as Ha-Sallaḥ ("writer of penitential prayers") ( ar, أَبُو هَارُون مُوسَى بِن يَعْقُوب اِبْن عَزْرَا, ''Abu Harun Musa bin Ya'qub ibn 'Azra'', he, מֹשֶׁה ב ...
is the first to mention Gabirol as a philosopher, praising his intellectual achievements, and quoting several passages from the ''Fons Vitæ'' in his own work, ''Aruggat ha-Bosem''. Abraham ibn Ezra, who cites Gabirol's philosophico-allegorical Bible interpretation, borrows from the ''Fons Vitæ'' both in his prose and in his poetry without giving due credit. The 12th-century philosopher
Joseph ibn Tzaddik Rabbi Joseph ben Jacob ibn Tzaddik (died 1149) was a Spanish rabbi, poet, and philosopher. A Talmudist of high repute, he was appointed in 1138 dayyan at Córdoba, Spain, Cordova, which office he held conjointly with Maimon, father of Maimonides, ...
borrows extensively from the "Fons Vitæ" in his work ''Microcosmos''. Another 12th-century philosopher,
Abraham ibn Daud Abraham ibn Daud ( he, אַבְרָהָם בֵּן דָּוִד הַלֵּוִי אִבְּן דָּאוּד; ar, ابراهيم بن داود) was a Spanish-Jewish astronomer, historian, and philosopher; born at Córdoba, Spain about 1110; die ...
of Toledo, was the first to take exception to Gabirol's teachings. In ''Sefer ha-Kabbalah'' he praises Gabirol as a poet. But to counteract the influence of ibn Gabirol the philosopher, he wrote an Arabic book, translated into Hebrew under the title ''Emunah Ramah'', in which he reproaches Gabirol for having philosophized without any regard to the requirements of the Jewish religious position and bitterly accuses him of mistaking a number of poor reasons for one good one. He criticizes Gabirol for being repetitive, wrong-headed and unconvincing. Occasional traces of ibn Gabriol's thought are found in some of the Kabbalistic literature of the 13th century. Later references to ibn Gabirol, such as those of Elijah Chabillo,
Isaac Abarbanel Isaac ben Judah Abarbanel ( he, יצחק בן יהודה אברבנאל;‎ 1437–1508), commonly referred to as Abarbanel (), also spelled Abravanel, Avravanel, or Abrabanel, was a Portuguese Jewish statesman, philosopher, Bible commentato ...
, Judah Abarbanel, Moses Almosnino, and
Joseph Solomon Delmedigo Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (or Del Medigo), also known as Yashar Mi-Qandia ( he, יש"ר מקנדיא) (16 June 1591 – 16 October 1655), was a rabbi, author, physician, mathematician, and music theorist. Born in Candia, Crete, a descendant of ...
, are based on an acquaintance with the scholastic philosophy, especially the works of
Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known ...
. The 13th-century a Jewish philosopher
Berechiah ha-Nakdan Berechiah ben Natronai Krespia ha-Nakdan ( he, ברכיה בן נטרונאי הנקדן; ) was a Jewish exegete, ethical writer, grammarian, translator, poet, and philosopher. His best-known works are '' Mishlè Shu'alim'' ("Fox Fables") and ''S ...
drew upon Gabirol's works in his encyclopedic philosophical text ''Sefer Haḥibbur'' ( he, ספר החיבור, , lit. "The Book of Compilation").


Influence on Scholasticism

For over six centuries, the Christian world regarded ''Fons Vitæ'' as the work of a Christian philosopher or Arabic Muslim philosopher, and it became a cornerstone and bone of contention in many theologically charged debates between Franciscans and Dominicans. The Aristotelian Dominicans led by St. Albertus Magnus and
St. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known ...
opposed the teachings of ''Fons Vitæ''; the Platonist
Franciscan The Franciscans are a group of related Mendicant orders, mendicant Christianity, Christian Catholic religious order, religious orders within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Italian Catholic friar Francis of Assisi, these orders include t ...
s led by
Duns Scotus John Duns Scotus ( – 8 November 1308), commonly called Duns Scotus ( ; ; "Duns the Scot"), was a Scottish Catholic priest and Franciscan friar, university professor, philosopher, and theologian. He is one of the four most important ...
supported its teachings, and led to its acceptance in Christian philosophy, influencing later philosophers such as the 16th-century Dominican
friar A friar is a member of one of the mendicant orders founded in the twelfth or thirteenth century; the term distinguishes the mendicants' itinerant apostolic character, exercised broadly under the jurisdiction of a superior general, from the ol ...
Giordano Bruno. Other early supporters of Gabirol's philosophy include the following: *
Dominicus Gundissalinus Dominicus Gundissalinus, also known as Domingo Gundisalvi or Gundisalvo ( 1115 – post 1190), was a philosopher and translator of Arabic to Medieval Latin active in Toledo. Among his translations, Gundissalinus worked on Avicenna's ''Liber de phil ...
, who translated the ''Fons Vitæ'' into Latin and incorporated its ideas into his own teaching. * William of Auvergne, who refers to the work of Gabirol under the title ''Fons Sapientiæ''. He speaks of Gabirol as a Christian and praises him as "''unicus omnium philosophantium nobilissimus''." *
Alexander of Hales Alexander of Hales (also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius ; 21 August 1245), also called ''Doctor Irrefragibilis'' (by Pope Alexander IV in the ''Bull De Fontibus Paradisi'') and ''Theologorum Monarcha'', was a Franciscan friar, theologian a ...
and his disciple
Bonaventura Bonaventura may refer to: * Bonaventura (given name), given name * Bonaventura (surname), surname * Bonaventura (VTA), light-rail station in San Jose, United States of America * ''Signor Bonaventura'', an Italian comic strip * Bonaventura Heinz Hou ...
, who accept the teaching of Gabirol that spiritual substances consist of matter and form. * William of Lamarre The main points at issue between Gabirol and Aquinas were as follows: # the universality of matter, Aquinas holding that spiritual substances are immaterial; # the plurality of forms in a physical entity, which Aquinas denied; # the power of activity of physical beings, which Gabirol affirmed. Aquinas held that Gabirol made the mistake of transferring to real existence the theoretical combination of genus and species, and that he thus came to the erroneous conclusion that in reality all things are constituted of matter and form as genus and species respectively.


Ethics


''The Improvement of the Moral Qualities''

''The Improvement of the Moral Qualities'', originally written in Arabic under the title Islah al-Khlaq ( ar, إصلاح الأخلاق), and later translated by Ibn Tibbon as ( he, "תקון מדות הנפש", ) is an ethical treatise that has been called by Munk "a popular manual of morals." It was composed by Gabirol at Zaragoza in 1045, at the request of some friends who wished to possess a book treating of the qualities of man and the methods of effecting their improvement. The innovations in the work are that it presents the principles of
ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns m ...
independently of religious dogma and that it proposes that the five physical senses are emblems and instruments of virtue and vice, but not their agents; thus, a person's inclination to vice is subject to a person's will to change. Gabirol presents a tabular diagram of the relationship of twenty qualities to the five senses, reconstructed at right, and urges his readers to train the qualities of their souls unto good through self-understanding and habituation. He regards man's ability to do so as an example of divine benevolence. While this work of Gabirol is not widely studied in Judaism, it has many points in common with Bahya ibn Paquda's very popular work ''
Chovot HaLevavot ''Chovot HaLevavot'', or ''Ḥobot HaLebabot'' (; he, חובות הלבבות; English: ''Duties of the Hearts''), is the primary work of the Jewish rabbi, Bahya ibn Paquda, full name ''Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda''. Rabbi Ibn Paquda is believed ...
'', written in 1040, also in Zaragoza.


''Mivchar HaPeninim''

''Mukhtar al-Jawahir'' ( ar, مختار الجواهر), '' Mivchar HaPeninim'' ( he, מבחר הפנינים. lit. "The Choice of Pearls"), an ethics work of sixty-four chapters, has been attributed to Gabirol since the 19th century, but this is doubtful. It was originally published, along with a short commentary, in Soncino, Italy, in 1484, and has since been re-worked and re-published in many forms and abridged editions (e.g. Joseph Ḳimcḥi versified the work under the title "''Shekel ha-Kodesh''"). The work is a collection of maxims, proverbs, and moral reflections, many of them of Arabic origin, and bears a strong similarity to the
Florilegium In medieval Latin, a ' (plural ') was a compilation of excerpts or sententia from other writings and is an offshoot of the commonplacing tradition. The word is from the Latin ''flos'' (flower) and '' legere'' (to gather): literally a gathering of ...
of
Hunayn ibn Ishaq Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi (also Hunain or Hunein) ( ar, أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; (809–873) was an influential Nestorian Christian translator, scholar, physician, and scientist. During the apex of the Islamic ...
and other Arabic and Hebrew collections of ethics sayings, which were highly prized by both Arabs and Jews.


Poetry

Gabirol wrote both sacred and secular poems, in Hebrew, and was recognized even by his critics (e.g.
Moses ibn Ezra Rabbi Moses ben Jacob ibn Ezra, known as Ha-Sallaḥ ("writer of penitential prayers") ( ar, أَبُو هَارُون مُوسَى بِن يَعْقُوب اِبْن عَزْرَا, ''Abu Harun Musa bin Ya'qub ibn 'Azra'', he, מֹשֶׁה ב ...
and
Yehuda Alharizi Yehuda Alharizi, also Judah ben Solomon Harizi or al-Harizi ( he, יהודה בן שלמה אלחריזי, ''Yehudah ben Shelomo al-Harizi'', ar, يحيا بن سليمان بن شاؤل أبو زكريا الحريزي اليهودي من أه ...
) as the greatest poet of his age. His secular poems express disillusionment with social mores and worldliness, but are written with a sophistication and artistry that reveals him to have been socially influenced by his worldly Arabic contemporaries. Gabirol's lasting poetic legacy, however, was his sacred works. Today, "his religious lyrics are considered by many to be the most powerful of their kind in the medieval Hebrew tradition, and his long cosmological masterpiece, ''Keter Malchut'', is acknowledged today as one of the greatest poems in all of Hebrew literature." His verses are distinctive for tackling complex metaphysical concepts, expressing scathing satire, and declaring his religious devotion unabashedly. Gabirol wrote with a pure Biblical Hebrew diction that would become the signature style of the Spanish school of Hebrew poets, and he popularized in Hebrew poetry the strict Arabic meter introduced by Dunash ben Labrat. Abraham ibn Ezra calls Gabirol, not ben Labrat, "the writer of metric songs," and in ''Sefer Zaḥot'' uses Gabirol's poems to illustrate various poetic meters. He wrote also more than one hundred piyyuṭim and
selichot Selichot ( he, סְלִיחוֹת, səlīḥōt, singular: , ''səlīḥā'') are Jewish penitential poems and prayers, especially those said in the period leading up to the High Holidays, and on fast days. The Thirteen Attributes of Mercy ar ...
for the Sabbath,
festivals A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...
, and fast-days, most of which have been included in the Holy Day prayer books of
Sephardim Sephardic (or Sephardi) Jews (, ; lad, Djudíos Sefardíes), also ''Sepharadim'' , Modern Hebrew: ''Sfaradim'', Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also , ''Ye'hude Sepharad'', lit. "The Jews of Spain", es, Judíos sefardíes (or ), pt, Judeus sefa ...
,
Ashkenazim Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...
, and even Karaites. Some of his most famous in liturgical use include the following: * ''Azharot'' * ''Keter Malchuth'' (lit. Royal Crown), for recitation on
Yom Kippur Yom Kippur (; he, יוֹם כִּפּוּר, , , ) is the holiest day in Judaism and Samaritanism. It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei, the first month of the Hebrew calendar. Primarily centered on atonement and repentance, the day's ...
* various dirges (''
kinnot Kinnot ( he, קינות; also kinnos, kinoth, qinot, qinoth; singular kinah, qinah or kinnah) are Hebrew dirges (sad poems) or elegies. The term is used to refer both to dirges in the Hebrew Bible, and also to later poems which are traditionally r ...
'') mourning the destruction of the
Temple in Jerusalem The Temple in Jerusalem, or alternatively the Holy Temple (; , ), refers to the two now-destroyed religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jeru ...
and the plight of Israel Gabirol's most famous poem is ''Keter Malchut'' (lit. Royal Crown), which, in 900 lines, describes the cosmos as testifying to its own creation by God, based upon the then current (11th-century) scientific understanding of the cosmos. Gabirol's poetry has been set to music by the modern composer
Aaron Jay Kernis Aaron Jay Kernis (born January 15, 1960) is a Pulitzer Prize- and Grammy Award-winning American composer serving as a member of the Yale School of Music faculty. Kernis spent 15 years as the music advisor to the Minnesota Orchestra and as Dir ...
, in an album titled "Symphony of Meditations." In 2007 Gabirol's poetry has been set to music by the Israeli
rock Rock most often refers to: * Rock (geology), a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals or mineraloids * Rock music, a genre of popular music Rock or Rocks may also refer to: Places United Kingdom * Rock, Caerphilly, a location in Wales ...
guitar The guitar is a fretted musical instrument that typically has six strings. It is usually held flat against the player's body and played by strumming or plucking the strings with the dominant hand, while simultaneously pressing selected stri ...
ist
Berry Sakharof Berry Sakharof ( he, ברי סחרוף, ; born 7 July 1957) is an Israeli rock guitarist, singer, songwriter and producer. Sakharof is one of Israel's most popular and critically acclaimed rock musicians, and is often referred to as "the prince ...
and the Israeli modern composer
Rea Mochiach REA or Rea may refer to: Places * Rea, Lombardy, in Italy * Rea, Missouri, United States * River Rea, a river in Birmingham, England * River Rea, Shropshire, a river in Shropshire, England * Rea, Hungarian name of Reea village in Totești Commune ...
, in a piece titled "Red Lips" ("Adumey Ha-Sefatot" "אֲדֻמֵּי הַשְּׂפָתוֹת")


Editions and translations

*
vol. 1vol. 2vol. 3vol. 4vol. 5vol. 6
* ''Shelomoh Ibn Gabirol, shirei ha-ḥol'', ed. by H. Brody and J. Schirmann (Jerusalem 1975) * ''Shirei ha-ḥol le-rabbi Shelomoh Ibn Gabirol'', ed. by Dov Jarden (Jerusalem, 1975) * Selomó Ibn Gabirol, ''Selección de perlas = Mibḥar ha-penînîm: (máximas morales, sentencias e historietas)'', trans. by David Gonzalo Maeso (Barcelona: Ameller, 1977) * Selomo Ibn Gabirol, ''Poesía secular'', trans. by Elena Romero ( adrid Ediciones Alfaguara, 1978) * Šelomoh Ibn Gabirol, ''Poemas seculares'', ed. by M. J. Cano (Granada: Universidad de Granada; alamanca Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, 1987) * Ibn Gabirol, ''Poesía religiosa'', ed. by María José Cano (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1992) * ''Selected poems of Solomon Ibn Gabirol'', trans. by Peter Cole (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001)


See also

*
Miguel Asín Palacios Miguel Asín Palacios (5 July 1871 – 12 August 1944) was a Spanish scholar of Islamic studies and the Arabic language, and a Roman Catholic priest. He is primarily known for suggesting Muslim sources for ideas and motifs present in Dante's Divin ...
* Ibn Gabirol Street


References


Further reading

* * Endnotes: ** H. Adler, Ibn Gabirol and His Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy, London, 1865; ** Ascher, A Choice of Pearls, London, 1859; ** Bacher, Bibelexegese der Jüdischen, Religionsphilosophen des Mittelalters, pp. 45–55, Budapest, 1892; ** Bäumker, Avencebrolis Fons Vitæ, Muuünster, 1895; ** Beer, Philosaphie und Philosophische Schriftsteller der Juden, Leipsic, 1852; ** Bloch, Die Jüdische Religionsphilosophic, in Winter and Wünsche, Die Jüdische Litteratur, ii. 699-793, 723-729; ** Dukes, Ehrensäulen, und Denksteine, pp. 9–25, Vienna, 1837; ** idem. Salomo ben Gabirol aus Malaga und die Ethischen Werke Desselben, Hanover, 1860; ** Eisler, Vorlesungen über die Jüdischen Philosophen des Mittelalters, i. 57-81, Vienna, 1876; ** Geiger, Salomo Gabirol und Seine Dichtungen, Leipsic, 1867; ** Graetz, History of the Jews. iii. 9; ** Guttmann, Die Philosophie des Salomon ibn Gabirol, Göttingen, 1889; ** Guttmann, Das Verhältniss des Thomas von Aquino zum Judenthum und zur Jödischen Litteratur, especially ii. 16-30, Götingen, 1891; ** Horovitz, Die Psychologie Ibn Gabirols, Breslau, 1900; ** Joël, Ibn Gebirol's Bedeutung für die Gesch. der Philosophie, Beiträge zur Gesch. der philosophie, i., Breslau, 1876; ** Kümpf, Nichtandalusische Poesie Andalusischer Dichter, pp. 167–191, Prague, 1858; ** Karpeles, Gesch. der Jüdischen Litteratur, i. 465-483, Berlin, 1886; ** Kaufmann, Studien über Salomon ibn Gabirol, Budapest, 1899; ** Kaufmann, Gesch. der Attributtenlehre in der Jüd. Religionsphilosophie des Mittelaliers, pp. 95–115, Gotha, 1877; ** Löwenthal, Pseudo-Aristoteles über die Seele, Berlin, 1891; ** Müller, De Godsleer der Middeleeuwsche Joden, pp. 90–107, Groningen, 1898; ** Munk, Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et, Arabe, Paris, 1859; ** Myer, Qabbalah, The Philosophical Writings of . . . Avicebron, Philadelphia, 1888; ** Rosin, in J. Q. R. iii. 159-181; ** Sachs, Die Religiöse; Poesie der Juden in Spanien, pp. 213–248, Berlin, 1845; ** Seyerlen, Die Gegenseitigen Beziehungen Zwischen Abendländischer und Morgenländischer Wissenschaft mit Besonderer Rücksicht auf Solomon ibn Gebirol und Seine Philosophische Bedeutung, Jena, 1899; ** Stouössel, Salomo ben Gabirol als Philosoph und Förderer der Kabbala, Leipsic, 1881; ** Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 379–388, Berlin, 1893; ** Wise, The Improvement of the Moral Qualities, New York, 1901; ** Wittmann, Die Stellung des Heiligen Thomas von Aquin zu Avencebrol, Münster, 1900. **''For Poetry'': ** Geiger, Salomo Gabirol und Seine Dichtungen, Leipsic, 1867; ** Senior Sachs, Cantiqucs de Salomon ibn Gabirole, Paris, 1868; ** idem, in Ha-Teḥiyyah, p. 185, Berlin, 1850; ** Dukes, Schire Shelomo, Hanover, 1858; ** idem, Ehrensaülen, Vienna, 1837; ** Edelmann and Dukes, Treasures of Oxford, London, 1851; ** M. Sachs, Die Religiöse Poesie der Juden in Spanien, Berlin, 1845; ** Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 187–194, 411, 588; ** Kämpf, Nichtandalusische Poesie Andalusischer Dichter, pp. 167 et seq.; ** Brody, Kuntras ha-Pijutim nach dem Machsor Vitry, Berlin, 1894, Index. *


External links

* (''includes an extensive bibliography'')
An Andalusian Alphabet
introduction to his poems
Improvement of the Moral Qualities
English translation at seforimonline.org
Solomon Ibn Gabirol
biography on chabad.org
Traditional Sphardic Singing of Gabirol's Shabbat Poem Shimru Shabtotai

pdf of Azharot of Solomon Ibn Gabirol in Hebrew
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gabirol, Solomon ibn 1020s births 1050s deaths Hebrew-language poets Jewish poets Jewish philosophers Sephardi rabbis 11th-century rabbis of Al-Andalus 11th-century Al-Andalus writers People from Málaga Philosophers of Judaism Philosophers of Al-Andalus 11th-century Spanish poets People from Zaragoza Spanish male poets 11th-century Spanish philosophers