Social norms are shared standards of
acceptable behavior by groups.
Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into
rule
Rule or ruling may refer to:
Education
* Royal University of Law and Economics (RULE), a university in Cambodia
Human activity
* The exercise of political or personal control by someone with authority or power
* Business rule, a rule perta ...
s and
law
Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vario ...
s.
Social normative influences or social norms, are deemed to be powerful drivers of human behavioural changes and well organized and incorporated by major theories which explain human behaviour.
Institution
Institutions are humanly devised structures of rules and norms that shape and constrain individual behavior. All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions a ...
s are composed of multiple norms.
Norms are shared social beliefs about behavior; thus, they are distinct from "
idea
In common usage and in philosophy, ideas are the results of thought. Also in philosophy, ideas can also be mental representational images of some object. Many philosophers have considered ideas to be a fundamental ontological category of being ...
s", "
attitudes", and "
values
In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of something or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics in ethics), or to describe the significance of dif ...
", which can be held privately, and which do not necessarily concern behavior.
Norms are contingent on context, social group, and historical circumstances.
Scholars distinguish between regulative norms (which constrain behavior), constitutive norms (which shape interests), and prescriptive norms (which prescribe what actors ''ought'' to do).
The effects of norms can be determined by a
logic of appropriateness
The logic of appropriateness is a theoretical perspective to explain human decision-making. It proposes that decisions and behavior follow from rules of appropriate behavior for a given role or identity. These rules are institutionalized in social ...
and
logic of consequences; the former entails that actors follow norms because it is socially appropriate, and the latter entails that actors follow norms because of cost-benefit calculations.
Three stages have been identified in the life cycle of a norm: (1) Norm emergence – norm entrepreneurs seek to persuade others of the desirability and appropriateness of certain behaviors; (2) Norm cascade – when a norm obtains broad acceptance; and (3) Norm internalization – when a norm acquires a "taken-for-granted" quality.
Norms are robust to various degrees: some norms are often violated whereas other norms are so deeply internalized that norm violations are infrequent.
Evidence for the existence of norms can be detected in the patterns of behavior within groups, as well as the articulation of norms in group discourse.
Definition
![Tennis shake hands after match](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Tennis_shake_hands_after_match.jpg)
There are varied definitions of social norms, but there is agreement among scholars that norms are:
# social and shared among members of a group,
# related to behaviors and shape decision-making,
# proscriptive or prescriptive
#socially acceptable way of living by a group of people in a society.
In 1965, Jack P. Gibbs identified three basic normative dimensions that all concepts of norms could be subsumed under:
# "a collective evaluation of behavior in terms of what it ''ought'' to be"
# "a collective expectation as to what behavior ''will be''"
# "particular ''reactions'' to behavior" (including attempts sanction or induce certain conduct)
According to Ronald Jepperson,
Peter Katzenstein
Peter Joachim Katzenstein FBA (born February 17, 1945) is a German-American political scientist. He is the Walter S. Carpenter, Jr. Professor of International Studies at Cornell University. Katzenstein has made influential contributions to the ...
and
Alexander Wendt
Alexander Wendt (born 12 June 1958) is an American political scientist who is one of the core social constructivist researchers in the field of international relations, and a key contributor to quantum social science. Wendt and academics such as Ni ...
, "norms are collective expectations about proper behavior for a given identity." Wayne Sandholtz argues against this definition, as he writes that shared expectations are an ''effect'' of norms, not an intrinsic quality of norms.
Sandholtz,
Martha Finnemore Martha Finnemore (born 1959) is an American constructivist scholar of international relations, and University Professor at the Elliott School of International Affairs at George Washington University. She is considered among the most influential int ...
and
Kathryn Sikkink Kathryn Sikkink (born 1955) is an author, human rights academic, and scholar of international relations working primarily through the theoretical strain of constructivism. She is currently at professor at Harvard Kennedy School.
Academic career
Ka ...
define norms instead as "standards of appropriate behavior for actors with a given identity."
In this definition, norms have an "oughtness" quality to them.
Michael Hechter and Karl-Dieter Opp define norms as "cultural phenomena that prescribe and proscribe behavior in specific circumstances."
Sociologists Christine Horne and Stefanie Mollborn define norms as "group-level evaluations of behavior."
This entails that norms are widespread expectations of social approval or disapproval of behavior.
Scholars debate whether social norms are individual constructs or collective constructs.
Economist and game theorist
Peyton Young
Hobart Peyton Young (born March 9, 1945) is an American game theorist and economist known for his contributions to evolutionary game theory and its application to the study of institutional and technological change, as well as the theory of learn ...
defines norms as "patterns of behavior that are self-enforcing within a group."
He emphasizes that norms are driven by shared expectations: "Everyone conforms, everyone is expected to conform, and everyone wants to conform when they expect everyone else to conform."
He characterizes norms as devices that "coordinate people's expectations in interactions that possess multiple equilibria."
Concepts such as "conventions", "customs", "morals", "mores", "rules", and "laws" have been characterized as equivalent to norms.
Institutions can be considered collections or clusters of multiple norms.
Rules and norms are not necessarily distinct phenomena: both are standards of conduct that can have varying levels of specificity and formality.
Laws are a highly formal version of norms.
Laws, rules and norms may be contradictory; for example, a law may prohibit something but norms still allow it.
Norms are not the equivalent of an aggregation of individual attitudes. Ideas, attitudes and values are not necessarily norms, as these concepts do not necessarily concern behavior and may be held privately.
"Prevalent behaviors" and behavioral regularities are not necessarily norms.
Instinctual or biological reactions, personal tastes, and personal habits are not necessarily norms.
Emergence and transmission
Groups may adopt norms in a variety of ways.
Some stable and self-reinforcing norms may emerge spontaneously without conscious human design.
Peyton Young goes as far as to say that "norms typically evolve without top-down direction... through interactions of individuals rather than by design."
Norms may develop informally, emerging gradually as a result of repeated use of discretionary stimuli to control behavior.
[Chong, D. (2000) ''Rational lives: norms and values in politics and society''] Not necessarily laws set in writing, informal norms represent generally accepted and widely sanctioned routines that people follow in everyday life.
[Gerber, L. & Macionis, J. (2011) ''Sociology'', 7th Canadian ed., p. 65] These informal norms, if broken, may not invite formal legal punishments or sanctions, but instead encourage reprimands, warnings, or
othering
In phenomenology, the terms the Other and the Constitutive Other identify the other human being, in their differences from the Self, as being a cumulative, constituting factor in the self-image of a person; as acknowledgement of being real; he ...
;
incest
Incest ( ) is human sexual activity between family members or close relatives. This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by affinity (marriage or stepfamily), adoption ...
, for example, is generally thought of as wrong in society, but many jurisdictions do not legally prohibit it.
Norms may also be created and advanced through conscious human design by
norm entrepreneur
A norm entrepreneur is someone interested in changing social norms. Cass Sunstein
Cass Robert Sunstein (born September 21, 1954) is an American legal scholar known for his studies of constitutional law, administrative law, environmental law, l ...
s. Norms can arise formally, where groups explicitly outline and implement behavioral expectations. Legal norms typically arise from design.
[Kendall, D. (2011) ''Sociology in our times''] A large number of these norms we follow 'naturally' such as driving on the right side of the road in the US and on the left side in the UK, or not speeding in order to avoid a ticket.
Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink identify three stages in the life cycle of a norm:
# Norm emergence: Norm entrepreneurs seek to persuade others to adopt their ideas about what is desirable and appropriate
# Norm cascade: When a norm has broad acceptance and reaches a
tipping point, with norm leaders pressuring others to adopt and adhere to the norm
# Norm internalization: When the norm has acquired a "taken-for-granted" quality where compliance with the norm is nearly automatic
They argue that several factors may raise the influence of certain norms:
* Legitimation: Actors that feel insecure about their status and reputation may be more likely to embrace norms
* Prominence: Norms that are held by actors seen as desirable and successful are more likely to diffuse to others
* Intrinsic qualities of the norm: Norms that are specific, long-lasting, and universal are more likely to become prominent
* Path dependency: Norms that are related to preexisting norms are more likely to be widely accepted
* World time-context: Systemic shocks (such as wars, revolutions and economic crises) may motivate a search for new norms
Christina Horne and Stefanie Mollborn have identified two broad categories of arguments for the emergence of norms:
# Consequentialism: norms are created when an individual's behavior has consequences and externalities for other members of the group.
# Relationalism: norms are created because people want to attract positive social reactions. In other words, norms do not necessarily contribute to the collective good.
Per consequentialism, norms contribute to the collective good. However, per relationalism, norms do not necessarily contribute to the collective good; norms may even be harmful to the collective.
Some scholars have characterized norms as inherently unstable, thus creating possibilities for norm change.
According to Wayne Sandholtz, actors are more likely to persuade others to modify existing norms if they possess power, can reference existing foundational meta-norms, and can reference precedents. Social proximity between actors has been characterized as a key component in sustaining social norms.
Transfer of norms between groups
Individuals may also import norms from a previous organization to their new group, which can get adopted over time.
Without a clear indication of how to act, people typically rely on their history to determine the best course forward; what was successful before may serve them well again. In a group, individuals may all import different histories or
scripts
Script may refer to:
Writing systems
* Script, a distinctive writing system, based on a repertoire of specific elements or symbols, or that repertoire
* Script (styles of handwriting)
** Script typeface, a typeface with characteristics of handw ...
about appropriate behaviors; common experience over time will lead the group to define as a whole its take on the right action, usually with the integration of several members' schemas.
Under the importation paradigm, norm formation occurs subtly and swiftly
whereas with formal or informal development of norms may take longer.
Groups internalize norms by accepting them as reasonable and proper standards for behavior within the group. Once firmly established, a norm becomes a part of the group's operational structure and hence more difficult to change. While possible for newcomers to a group to change its norms, it is much more likely that the new individual will adopt the group's norms, values, and perspectives, rather than the other way around.
Deviance from social norms
Deviance is defined as "nonconformity to a set of norms that are accepted by a significant number of people in a community or society."
[Appelbaum, R. P., Carr, D., Duneir, M., & Giddens, A. (2009). "Conformity, Deviance, and Crime." Introduction to Sociology, New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., p. 173.] More simply put, if group members do not follow a norm, they become labeled as a deviant. In the sociological literature, this can often lead to them being considered outcasts of society. Yet, deviant behavior amongst children is somewhat expected. Except the idea of this deviance manifesting as a criminal action, the social tolerance given in the example of the child is quickly withdrawn against the criminal. Crime is considered one of the most extreme forms of deviancy according to scholar Clifford R. Shaw.
What is considered "normal" is relative to the location of the
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
in which the
social interaction
A social relation or also described as a social interaction or social experience is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more individuals ...
is taking place. In psychology, an individual who routinely disobeys group norms runs the risk of turning into the "institutionalized deviant." Similar to the sociological definition, institutionalized deviants may be judged by other group members for their failure to adhere to norms. At first, group members may increase pressure on a non-conformist, attempting to engage the individual in conversation or explicate why he or she should follow their behavioral expectations. The role in which one decides on whether or not to behave is largely determined on how their actions will affect others. Especially with new members who perhaps do not know any better, groups may use discretionary stimuli to bring an individual's behavior back into line. Over time, however, if members continue to disobey, the group will give up on them as a lost cause; while the group may not necessarily revoke their membership, they may give them only superficial consideration.
If a worker is late to a meeting, for example, violating the office norm of punctuality, a boss or other co-worker may wait for the individual to arrive and pull him aside later to ask what happened. If the behavior continues, eventually the group may begin meetings without him since the individual "is always late." The group generalizes the individual's disobedience and promptly dismisses it, thereby reducing the member's influence and footing in future group disagreements.
Group tolerance for deviation varies across membership; not all group members receive the same treatment for norm violations. Individuals may build up a "reserve" of good behavior through
conformity
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, politics or being like-minded. Norms are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. People often choo ...
, which they can borrow against later. These ''
idiosyncrasy credit
Idiosyncrasy credit is a concept in social psychology that describes an individual's capacity to acceptably deviate from group expectations. Idiosyncrasy credits are increased (earned) each time an individual conforms to a group's expectations, and ...
s'' provide a theoretical currency for understanding variations in group behavioral expectations.
A teacher, for example, may more easily forgive a straight-A student for misbehaving—who has past "good credit" saved up—than a repeatedly disruptive student. While past performance can help build idiosyncrasy credits, some group members have a higher balance to start with.
Individuals can import idiosyncrasy credits from another group; childhood movie stars, for example, who enroll in college, may experience more leeway in adopting school norms than other incoming freshmen. Finally,
leaders
Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, encompasses the ability of an individual, group or organization to "lead", influence or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The word "leadership" often gets view ...
or individuals in other high-status positions may begin with more credits and appear to be "above the rules" at times.
Even their idiosyncrasy credits are not bottomless, however; while held to a more lenient standard than the average member, leaders may still face group rejection if their disobedience becomes too extreme.
Deviance also causes multiple emotions one experiences when going against a norm. One of those emotions widely attributed to deviance is
guilt
Guilt may refer to:
*Guilt (emotion), an emotion that occurs when a person feels that they have violated a moral standard
*Culpability, a legal term
*Guilt (law), a legal term
Music
*Guilt (album), ''Guilt'' (album), a 2009 album by Mims
*Guilt ( ...
. Guilt is connected to the
ethics
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns m ...
of duty which in turn becomes a primary object of moral obligation. Guilt is followed by an action that is questioned after its doing. It can be described as something negative to the self as well as a negative state of feeling. Used in both instances, it is both an unpleasant feeling as well as a form of self-punishment. Using the metaphor of "dirty hands", it is the staining or tainting of oneself and therefore having to self cleanse away the filth. It is a form of reparation that confronts oneself as well as submitting to the possibility of anger and punishment from others. Guilt is a point in both action and feeling that acts as a stimulus for further "honorable" actions.
Behavior
Whereas ideas in general do not necessarily have behavioral implications, Martha Finnemore notes that "norms by definition concern behavior. One could say that they are collectively held ideas about behavior."
Norms running counter to the behaviors of the overarching society or culture may be transmitted and maintained within small subgroups of society. For example, Crandall (1988) noted that certain groups (e.g.,
cheerleading
Cheerleading is an activity in which the participants (called cheerleaders) cheer for their team as a form of encouragement. It can range from chanting slogans to intense physical activity. It can be performed to motivate sports teams, to ente ...
squads, dance troupes, sports teams, sororities) have a rate of
bulimia
Bulimia nervosa, also known as simply bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging or fasting, and excessive concern with body shape and weight. The aim of this activity is to expel the body of calories eate ...
, a publicly recognized life-threatening disease, that is much higher than society as a whole. Social norms have a way of maintaining order and organizing groups.
In the field of social psychology, the roles of norms are emphasized—which can guide behavior in a certain situation or environment as "mental representations of appropriate behavior".
It has been shown that normative messages can promote
pro-social behavior
Prosocial behavior, or intent to benefit others, is a social behavior that "benefit other people or society as a whole", "such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering". Obeying the rules and conforming to socially accepted beh ...
, including decreasing alcohol use,
increasing voter turnout,
and reducing energy use. According to the psychological definition of social norms' behavioral component, norms have two dimensions: how much a behavior is exhibited, and how much the group approves of that behavior.
[Jackson, J. (1965). "Structural characteristics of norms". In I.D. Steiner & M. Fishbein (Eds.), ''Current studies in social psychology'' (pp. 301-309).]
Social control
Although not considered to be formal laws within society, norms still work to promote a great deal of
social control. They are statements that regulate conduct. The cultural phenomenon that is the norm is the prescriber of acceptable behavior in specific instances. Ranging in variations depending on culture, race, religion, and geographical location, it is the foundation of the terms some know as acceptable as not to injure others, the golden rule, and to keep promises that have been pledged. Without them, there would be a world without consensus, common ground, or restrictions. Even though the law and a state's legislation is not intended to control social norms, society and the law are inherently linked and one dictates the other. This is why it has been said that the language used in some legislation is controlling and dictating for what should or should not be accepted. For example, the criminalization of familial sexual relations is said to protect those that are vulnerable, however even consenting adults cannot have sexual relationships with their relatives. The language surrounding these laws conveys the message that such acts are supposedly immoral and should be condemned, even though there is no actual victim in these consenting relationships.
Social norms can be enforced formally (e.g., through sanctions) or informally (e.g., through
body language
Body language is a type of communication in which physical behaviors, as opposed to words, are used to express or convey information. Such behavior includes facial expressions, body posture, gestures, eye movement, touch and the use of space. Th ...
and non-verbal communication cues). Because individuals often derive physical or psychological resources from group membership, groups are said to control ''discretionary stimuli''; groups can withhold or give out more resources in response to members' adherence to group norms, effectively controlling member behavior through rewards and operant conditioning.
[Hackman, J.R. (1992). "Group influences on individuals in organizations". In M.D. Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), ''Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology'' (Vol. 3). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 234-245.] Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people or by social norms. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the r ...
research has found the more an individual values group-controlled resources or the more an individual sees group membership as central to his definition of self, the more likely he is to conform.
Social norms also allow an individual to assess what behaviors the group deems important to its existence or survival, since they represent a codification of belief; groups generally do not punish members or create norms over actions which they care little about.
Norms in every culture create
conformity
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, politics or being like-minded. Norms are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. People often choo ...
that allows for people to become
socialized
In sociology, socialization or socialisation (see spelling differences) is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultur ...
to the culture in which they live.
[Marshall, G. ''Oxford Dictionary of Sociology'']
As social beings, individuals learn when and where it is appropriate to say certain things, to use certain words, to discuss certain topics or wear certain clothes, and when it is not. Thus, knowledge about
cultural
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human Society, societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, and habits of the ...
norms is important for
impressions,
[Kamau, C. (2009) Strategizing impression management in corporations: cultural knowledge as capital. In D. Harorimana (Ed) Cultural implications of knowledge sharing, management and transfer: identifying competitive advantage. Chapter 4. Information Science Reference. ] which is an individual's regulation of their nonverbal behavior. One also comes to know through experience what types of people he/she can and cannot discuss certain topics with or wear certain types of dress around. Typically, this knowledge is derived through experience (i.e. social norms are learned through
social interaction
A social relation or also described as a social interaction or social experience is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more individuals ...
).
Wearing a suit to a job interview in order to give a great first impression represents a common example of a social norm in the
white collar work force.
In his work "Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes", Robert Ellickson studies various interactions between members of
neighbourhood
A neighbourhood (British English, Irish English, Australian English and Canadian English) or neighborhood (American English; see spelling differences) is a geographically localised community within a larger city, town, suburb or rural are ...
s and communities to show how societal norms create order within a small group of people. He argues that, in a small community or neighborhood, many rules and disputes can be settled without a central governing body simply by the interactions within these communities.
Sociology
In sociology, norms are seen as rules that bind an individual's actions to a specific sanction in one of two forms: a punishment or a reward.
Through regulation of behavior, social norms create unique patterns that allow for distinguishing characteristics to be made between social systems.
This creates a boundary that allows for a differentiation between those that belong in a specific social setting and those that do not.
For
Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons (December 13, 1902 – May 8, 1979) was an American sociologist of the classical tradition, best known for his social action theory and structural functionalism. Parsons is considered one of the most influential figures in sociol ...
of the
functionalist school, norms dictate the interactions of people in all social encounters. On the other hand,
Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
believed that norms are used to promote the creation of
role
A role (also rôle or social role) is a set of connected behaviors, rights, moral obligation, obligations, beliefs, and social norm, norms as conceptualized by people in a social situation. It is an expected or free or continuously changing behavi ...
s in society which allows for people of different levels of
social class
A social class is a grouping of people into a set of Dominance hierarchy, hierarchical social categories, the most common being the Upper class, upper, Middle class, middle and Working class, lower classes. Membership in a social class can for ...
structure to be able to function properly.
Marx claims that this power dynamic creates
social order
The term social order can be used in two senses: In the first sense, it refers to a particular system of social structures and institutions. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order. In the second sense, social order ...
.
James Coleman (sociologist)
James Samuel Coleman (May 12, 1926 – March 25, 1995) was an American sociologist, theorist, and empirical researcher, based chiefly at the University of Chicago.
He was elected president of the American Sociological Association in 1991. He stud ...
used both micro and macro conditions for his theory.
For Coleman, norms start out as goal oriented actions by actors on the micro level.
If the benefits do not outweigh the costs of the action for the actors, then a social norm would emerge.
The norm's effectiveness is then determined by its ability to enforce its sanctions against those who would not contribute to the "optimal social order."
Heinrich Popitz is convinced that the establishment of social norms, that make the future actions of alter foreseeable for ego, solves the problem of
contingency (
Niklas Luhmann
Niklas Luhmann (; ; December 8, 1927 – November 6, 1998) was a German sociologist, philosopher of social science, and a prominent thinker in systems theory.
Biography
Luhmann was born in Lüneburg, Free State of Prussia, where his father's fa ...
). In this way, ego can count on those actions as if they would already have been performed and does not have to wait for their actual execution; social interaction is thus accelerated. Important factors in the standardization of behavior are sanctions and social roles.
Operant conditioning
The probability of these behaviours occurring again is discussed in the theories of
B. F. Skinner
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. He was a professor of psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.
...
, who states that
operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment. In it, operants—behaviors that affect one's environment—are c ...
plays a role in the process of social norm development. Operant conditioning is the process by which behaviours are changed as a function of their consequences. The probability that a behaviour will occur can be increased or decreased depending on the consequences of said behaviour.
In the case of social deviance, an individual who has gone against a norm will contact the negative contingencies associated with deviance, this may take the form of formal or informal rebuke, social isolation or censure, or more concrete punishments such as fines or imprisonment. If one reduces the deviant behavior after receiving a negative consequence, then they have learned via punishment. If they have engaged in a behavior consistent with a social norm after having an aversive stimulus reduced, then they have learned via negative reinforcement. Reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases behavior.
As an example of this, consider a child who has painted on the walls of her house, if she has never done this before she may immediately seek a reaction from her mother or father. The form of reaction taken by the mother or father will affect whether the behaviour is likely to occur again in the future. If her parent is positive and approving of the behaviour it will likely reoccur (reinforcement) however, if the parent offers an aversive consequence (physical punishment, time-out, anger etc...) then the child is less likely to repeat the behaviour in future (punishment).
Skinner also states that humans are conditioned from a very young age on how to behave and how to act with those around us considering the outside influences of the society and location one is in. Built to blend into the ambiance and attitude around us, deviance is a frowned upon action.
Focus theory of normative conduct
Cialdini
Enrico Cialdini, Duca di Gaeta (8 August 18118 September 1892) was an Italian soldier, politician and diplomat.
Biography
He was born in Castelvetro, in the province of Modena. In 1831 he took part in the insurrection at Modena, fleeing afterw ...
, Reno, and Kallgren developed the focus theory of normative conduct to describe how individuals implicitly juggle multiple behavioral expectations at once. Expanding on conflicting prior beliefs about whether cultural, situational or personal norms motivate action, the researchers suggested the focus of an individual's attention will dictate what behavioral expectation they follow.
Types
There is no clear consensus on how the term norm should be used.
Martha Finnemore Martha Finnemore (born 1959) is an American constructivist scholar of international relations, and University Professor at the Elliott School of International Affairs at George Washington University. She is considered among the most influential int ...
and
Kathryn Sikkink Kathryn Sikkink (born 1955) is an author, human rights academic, and scholar of international relations working primarily through the theoretical strain of constructivism. She is currently at professor at Harvard Kennedy School.
Academic career
Ka ...
distinguish between three types of norms:
# Regulative norms: they "order and constrain behavior"
# Constitutive norms: they "create new actors, interests, or categories of action"
# Evaluative and prescriptive norms: they have an "oughtness" quality to them
Finnemore, Sikkink, Jeffrey W. Legro and others have argued that the robustness (or effectiveness) of norms can be measured by factors such as:
* The specificity of the norm: norms that are clear and specific are more likely to be effective
* The longevity of the norm: norms with a history are more likely to be effective
* The universality of the norm: norms that make general claims (rather than localized and particularistic claims) are more likely to be effective
* The prominence of the norm: norms that are widely accepted among powerful actors are more likely to be effective
Christina Horne argues that the robustness of a norm is shaped by the degree of support for the actors who sanction deviant behaviors; she refers to norms regulating how to enforce norms as "metanorms." According to
Beth G. Simmons and Hyeran Jo, diversity of support for a norm can be a strong indicator of robustness.
They add that institutionalization of a norm raises its robustness.
It has also been posited that norms that exist within broader clusters of distinct but mutually reinforcing norms may be more robust.
Jeffrey Checkel
Jeffrey T. Checkel is an American academic associated with the theory of constructivist school of international relations. He is currently professor and chair in International Politics at the European University Institute, Florence.
Career
C ...
argues that there are two common types of explanations for the efficacy of norms:
*
Rationalism
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".Lacey, A.R. (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy' ...
: actors comply with norms due to coercion, cost-benefit calculations, and material incentives
*
Constructivism
Constructivism may refer to:
Art and architecture
* Constructivism (art), an early 20th-century artistic movement that extols art as a practice for social purposes
* Constructivist architecture, an architectural movement in Russia in the 1920s a ...
: actors comply with norms due to social learning and socialization
According to Peyton Young, mechanisms that support normative behavior include:
*
Coordination
Coordination may refer to:
* Coordination (linguistics), a compound grammatical construction
* Coordination complex, consisting of a central atom or ion and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions
* Coordination number or ligancy of a centr ...
*
Social pressure
Peer pressure is the direct or indirect influence on peers, i.e., members of social groups with similar interests, experiences, or social statuses. Members of a peer group are more likely to influence a person's beliefs, values, and behavior. A g ...
*
Signaling
In signal processing, a signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon. Any quantity that can vary over space or time can be used as a signal to share messages between observers. The ''IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing'' ...
*
Focal points
Descriptive versus injunctive
Descriptive norms depict what happens, while injunctive norms describe what ''should'' happen. Cialdini, Reno, and Kallgren (1990) define a descriptive norm as people's perceptions of what is commonly done in specific situations; it signifies what most people do, without assigning judgment. The absence of trash on the ground in a parking lot, for example, transmits the descriptive norm that most people there do not
litter
Litter consists of waste products that have been discarded incorrectly, without consent, at an unsuitable location. Litter can also be used as a verb; to litter means to drop and leave objects, often man-made, such as aluminum cans, paper cups, ...
.
An Injunctive norm, on the other hand, transmits group approval about a particular behavior; it dictates how an individual ''should'' behave.
[Rivis, Amanda, Sheeran, Paschal. "Descriptive Norms as an Additional Predictor in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A Meta-Analysis". 2003] Watching another person pick up trash off the ground and throw it out, a group member may pick up on the injunctive norm that he ought to not litter.
Prescriptive and proscriptive norms
Prescriptive norms are unwritten rules that are understood and followed by society and indicate what we should do.
Expressing gratitude or writing a Thank You card when someone gives you a gift represents a prescriptive norm in American culture. Proscriptive norms, in contrast, comprise the other end of the same spectrum; they are similarly society's unwritten rules about what one should not do.
These norms can vary between cultures; while kissing someone you just met on the cheek is an acceptable greeting in some European countries, this is not acceptable, and thus represents a proscriptive norm in the United States.
Subjective norms
Subjective norms are determined by beliefs about the extent to which important others want a person to perform a behavior.When combined with attitude toward behavior, subjective norms shape an individuals intentions.Social influences are conceptualized in terms of the pressure that people perceive from important others to perform, or not to perform, a behavior.
Social Psychologist Icek Azjen theorized that subjective norms are determined by the strength of a given normative belief and further weighted by the significance of a social referent, as represented in the following equation: SN ∝ Σ''n
im
i ,'' where (n) is a normative belief and (m) is the motivation to comply with said belief.
Mathematical representations
Over the last few decades, several theorists have attempted to explain social norms from a more theoretical point of view. By quantifying behavioral expectations graphically or attempting to plot the logic behind adherence, theorists hoped to be able to predict whether or not individuals would conform. The return potential model and game theory provide a slightly more economic conceptualization of norms, suggesting individuals can calculate the cost or benefit behind possible behavioral outcomes. Under these theoretical frameworks, choosing to obey or violate norms becomes a more deliberate, quantifiable decision.
Return potential model
Developed in the 1960s, the return potential model provides a method for plotting and visualizing group norms. In the regular coordinate plane, the amount of behavior exhibited is plotted on the X-axis (label ''a'' i
Figure 1 while the amount of group acceptance or approval gets plotted on the Y-axis (''b'' in Figure 1).
The graph represents the potential return or positive outcome to an individual for a given behavioral norm. Theoretically, one could plot a point for each increment of behavior how much the group likes or dislikes that action. For example, it may be the case that among first-year graduate students, strong social norms exist around how many daily cups of coffee a student drinks. If the return curve in Figure 1 correctly displays the example social norm, we can see that if someone drinks 0 cups of coffee a day, the group strongly disapproves. The group disapproves of the behavior of any member who drinks fewer than four cups of coffee a day; the group disapproves of drinking more than seven cups, shown by the approval curve dipping back below zero. As seen in this example, the return potential model displays how much group approval one can expect for each increment of behavior.
* Point of maximum return. The point with the greatest y-coordinate is called the point of maximum return, as it represents the amount of behavior the group likes the best.
While ''c'' in Figure 1 is labeling the return curve in general, the highlighted point just above it at X=6, represents the point of maximum return. Extending our above example, the point of maximum return for first-year graduate students would be 6 cups of coffee; they receive the most social approval for drinking exactly that many cups. Any more or any fewer cups would decrease the approval.
* Range of tolerable behavior. Label ''d'' represents the range of tolerable behavior, or the amount of action the group finds acceptable.
It encompasses all the positive area under the curve. In Figure 1, the range of tolerable behavior extends is 3, as the group approves of all behavior from 4 to 7 and 7-4=3. Carrying over our coffee example again, we can see that first-years only approve of having a limited number of cups of coffee (between 4 and 7); more than 7 cups or fewer than 4 would fall outside the range of tolerable behavior. Norms can have a narrower or wider range of tolerable behavior. Typically, a narrower range of behavior indicates a behavior with greater consequences to the group.
* Intensity. The intensity of the norm tells how much the group cares about the norm, or how much group
affect is at stake to be won or lost. It is represented in the return potential model by the total amount of area subsumed by the curve, regardless of whether the area is positive or negative.
A norm with low intensity would not vary far from the x-axis; the amount of approval or disapproval for given behaviors would be closer to zero. A high-intensity norm, however, would have more extreme approval ratings. In Figure 1, the intensity of the norm appears high, as few behaviors invoke a rating of indifference.
* Crystallization. Finally, norm crystallization refers to how much variance exists within the curve; translated from the theoretical back to the actual norm, it shows how much agreement exists between group members about the approval for a given amount of behavior.
It may be that some members believe the norm more central to group functioning than others. A group norm like how many cups of coffee first years should drink would probably have low crystallization since a lot of individuals have varying beliefs about the appropriate amount of caffeine to imbibe; in contrast, the norm of not plagiarizing another student's work would likely have high crystallization, as people uniformly agree on the behavior's unacceptability. Showing the overall group norm, the return potential model in Figure 1 does not indicate the crystallization. However, a return potential model that plotted individual data points alongside the cumulative norm could demonstrate the variance and allow us to deduce crystallization.
Game theory
Another general formal framework that can be used to represent the essential elements of the social situation surrounding a norm is the
repeated game
In game theory, a repeated game is an extensive form game that consists of a number of repetitions of some base game (called a stage game). The stage game is usually one of the well-studied 2-person games. Repeated games capture the idea that a ...
of game theory. Rational choice, a branch of game theory, deals with the relations and actions socially committed among rational agents. A norm gives a person a
rule of thumb
In English, the phrase ''rule of thumb'' refers to an approximate method for doing something, based on practical experience rather than theory. This usage of the phrase can be traced back to the 17th century and has been associated with various t ...
for how they should behave. However, a
rational
Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an abili ...
person acts according to the rule only if it is beneficial for them. The situation can be described as follows. A norm gives an
expectation of how other people act in a given situation (macro). A person acts optimally given the expectation (micro). For a norm to be
stable
A stable is a building in which livestock, especially horses, are kept. It most commonly means a building that is divided into separate stalls for individual animals and livestock. There are many different types of stables in use today; the ...
, people's actions must reconstitute the expectation without change (micro-macro feedback loop). A set of such correct stable expectations is known as a
Nash equilibrium
In game theory, the Nash equilibrium, named after the mathematician John Nash, is the most common way to define the solution of a non-cooperative game involving two or more players. In a Nash equilibrium, each player is assumed to know the equili ...
. Thus, a stable norm must constitute a Nash equilibrium.
[ Bicchieri, Cristina. 2006. The Grammar of Society: The Nature and Dynamics of Social Norms, New York: Cambridge University Press, Ch. 1] In the Nash equilibrium, no one actor has any positive incentive in individually deviating from a certain action.
Social norms will be implemented if the actions of that specific norm come into agreement by the support of the Nash equilibrium in the majority of the game theoretical approaches.
[Voss 2001, p. 105]
From a game-theoretical point of view, there are two
explanation
An explanation is a set of Statement (logic), statements usually constructed to description, describe a set of facts which clarifies the causality, causes, wiktionary:context, context, and Logical consequence, consequences of those facts. It may ...
s for the vast variety of norms that exist throughout the world. One is the difference in games. Different parts of the world may give different environmental contexts and different people may have different values, which may result in a difference in games. The other is
equilibrium selection Equilibrium selection is a concept from game theory which seeks to address reasons for players of a game to select a certain equilibrium over another. The concept is especially relevant in evolutionary game theory, where the different methods of eq ...
not explicable by the game itself. Equilibrium selection is closely related to
coordination
Coordination may refer to:
* Coordination (linguistics), a compound grammatical construction
* Coordination complex, consisting of a central atom or ion and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions
* Coordination number or ligancy of a centr ...
. For a simple example, driving is common throughout the world, but in some countries people drive on the right and in other countries people drive on the left (see
coordination game A coordination game is a type of simultaneous game found in game theory. It describes the situation where a player will earn a higher payoff when they select the same course of action as another player. The game is not one of pure conflict, which r ...
). A framework called comparative
institutional analysis
Institutional analysis is that part of the social sciences which studies how institutions—i.e., structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of two or more individuals—behave and function according to both e ...
is proposed to deal with the game theoretical structural understanding of the variety of social norms.
See also
References
Further reading
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* Appelbaum, R. P., Carr, D., Duneir, M., Giddens, A. (2009). Conformity, Deviance, and Crime. ''Introduction to Sociology,'' New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., p. 173.
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* Bicchieri, C. (2006). ''The Grammar of Society: The Nature and Dynamics of Social Norms'', New York: Cambridge University Press.
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* Boyd, R. & Richerson, P.J. (1985). ''Culture and the Evolutionary Process,'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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* Durkheim, E. (1915). ''The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life,'' New York: Free Press.
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* Fine, G.A. (2001). ''Social Norms'', ed. by Michael Hechter and Karl-Dieter Opp, New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
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* Hechter, M. & Karl-Dieter Opp, eds. (2001). ''Social Norms'', New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
* Heiss, J. (1981). "Social Roles," In ''Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives,'' Rosenburg, M. & Turner, R.H. (eds.), New York: Basic Books.
* Hochschild, A. (1989). "The Economy of Gratitude," In D.D. Franks & E.D. McCarthy (Eds.), ''The Sociology of Emotions: Original Essays and Research Papers'', Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
* Horne, C. (2001). "Social Norms". In M. Hechter & K. Opp (Eds.), New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
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* Kohn, M.L. (1977). ''Class and Conformity: A Study in Values,'' 2nd ed., Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
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* Posner, E. (2000). Law and Social Norms. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press
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* Scott, J.F. (1971). ''Internalization of Norms: A Sociological Theory of Moral Commitment,'' Englewoods Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice–Hall.
* Ullmann-Margalit, E. (1977). ''The Emergence of Norms''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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* Young, H.P. (2008). "Social norms". ''
The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'' (2018), 3rd ed., is a twenty-volume reference work on economics published by Palgrave Macmillan. It contains around 3,000 entries, including many classic essays from the original Inglis Palgrave Diction ...
'', 2nd Edition.
External links
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{{Nonverbal communication
Conformity
Consensus reality
Social concepts
Sociological terminology
Social agreement
Folklore