The history of Trinidad and Tobago begins with the settlements of the islands by
Indigenous First Peoples. Trinidad was visited by
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus
* lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo
* es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón
* pt, Cristóvão Colombo
* ca, Cristòfor (or )
* la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...
on his
third voyage in 1498, (he never landed in Tobago), and claimed in the name of Spain. Trinidad was administered by
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
hands until 1797, but it was largely settled by French colonists. Tobago changed hands between the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
,
French,
Dutch
Dutch commonly refers to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
* Dutch people ()
* Dutch language ()
Dutch may also refer to:
Places
* Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States
* Pennsylvania Dutch Country
People E ...
, and
Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands following the second
Treaty of Paris (1814)
The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 April between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies. The treaty set the borde ...
. In 1889, the two islands were incorporated into a single political entity.
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated south of ...
obtained its independence from the British Empire in 1962 and became a
republic in 1976.
Pre-Columbian period
Human settlement in Trinidad dates back at least 7,000 years. The earliest settlers, termed Archaic or
Ortoiroid
The Ortoiroid people were the second wave of human settlers of the Caribbean who began their migration into the Antilles around 2000 BCE. They were preceded by the Casimiroid peoples (~4190-2165 BCE). They are believed to have originated in the ...
, are believed to have settled Trinidad and Tobago from northeastern South America around 4000 BCE. Twenty-nine Archaic sites have been identified, mostly in south Trinidad and Tobago; this includes the 7,000-year-old
Banwari Trace site which is the oldest discovered human settlement in the eastern Caribbean. Archaic populations were pre-ceramic, and dominated the area until about 200 BCE.
Around 250 BCE the first ceramic-using people in the Caribbean, the
Saladoid
The Saladoid culture is a pre-Columbian indigenous culture of territory in present-day Venezuela and the Caribbean that flourished from 500 BCE to 545 CE. The Saladoid were an Arawak people. Concentrated along the lowlands of the Orinoco River, th ...
people, entered Trinidad and Tobago. The earliest evidence of these people come from around 2100 BCE along the banks of the
Orinoco River in
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
. From Trinidad and Tobago, they are believed to have moved north into the remaining islands of the Caribbean. Thirty-seven Saladoid sites have been identified in Trinidad and Tobago, and are located all over the island.
After 250 CE a third group, called the
Barrancoid people settled in southern Trinidad and Tobago after migrating up the Orinoco River toward the sea. The oldest Barrancoid settlement appears to have been at
Erin
Erin is a Hiberno-English word for Ireland originating from the Irish word ''"Éirinn"''. "Éirinn" is the dative case of the Irish word for Ireland, "Éire", genitive "Éireann", the dative being used in prepositional phrases such as ''"go h ...
, on the south coast.
Following the collapse of Barrancoid communities along the Orinoco around 650 CE, a new group, called the Arauquinoid expanded up the river to the coast. The cultural artefacts of this group were only partly adopted in Trinidad and Tobago and adjacent areas of northeast Venezuela, and as a result, this culture is called Guayabitoid in these areas.
Around 1300 CE a new group appears to have settled in Trinidad and Tobago and introduced new cultural attributes which largely replaced the Guayabitoid culture. Termed the Mayoid cultural tradition, this represents the native tribes which were present in Trinidad and Tobago at the time of European arrival. Their distinct pottery and artifacts survive until 1800, but after this time they were largely assimilated into mainstream Trinidad and Tobago society. These included the Nepoya and Suppoya (who were probably Arawak-speaking) and the Yao (who were probably
Carib-speaking). They have generally been called
Arawaks and
Caribs. These were largely wiped out by the Spanish colonisers under the
encomienda system. Under this system which was basically a form of slavery, Spanish encomederos forced the Amerindians to work for them in exchange for Spanish "protection" and conversion to Christianity. The survivors were first organised into
Missions by the
Capuchin friars, and then gradually assimilated.
Spanish period
The arrival of Columbus
The first-ever contact with Europeans occurred when Christopher Columbus, who was on his
third voyage of exploration, arrived at noon on 31 July 1498. He landed at a harbor he called Point Galera, while naming the island Trinidad, before proceeding into the
Gulf of Paria
The Gulf of Paria ( ; es, Golfo de Paria) is a shallow (180 m at its deepest) semi-enclosed inland sea located between the island of Trinidad (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago) and the east coast of Venezuela. It separates the two countries ...
via the
Serpent's Mouth
The Columbus Channel or Serpent's Mouth ( es, Boca de la Serpiente), is a strait lying between Icacos Point in southwest Trinidad and Tobago and the north coast of Venezuela. It leads from the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Paria
The Gulf of Pa ...
and the Caribbean Sea via
Dragon's Mouth.
Tobago was seen by Columbus on 14 August 1498. He did not land,
but named the island ''Belaforme'', "because from a distance it seemed beautiful".
Colonial settlement of Trinidad
Trinidad is reported to have been densely populated at the beginning of the colonial period. Although in 1510 Trinidad was said to have the only "peaceful Indians" along the whole South American coast, demand for slaves to supply the
pearl
A pearl is a hard, glistening object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as fossil conulariids. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is composed of calcium carb ...
-fisheries in nearby
Isla Margarita
Margarita Island (, ) is the largest island in the Venezuelan state of Nueva Esparta, situated off the northeastern coast of the country, in the Caribbean Sea. The capital city of Nueva Esparta, La Asunción, is located on the island.
History
...
led to them being declared "Caribs" (and thus, fair game for
slavers) in 1511. As a consequence of this, Trinidad and Tobago became the focus of
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
slaving raids, primarily to supply Margarita's pearl fisheries.
In 1530
Antonio Sedeño was appointed governor.
Granted a contract to settle Trinidad, with an eye toward discovering long-rumored
El Dorado and controlling the trade in slaves, in 1532 he attempted to establish a settlement, but was driven off the island following the Battle of
Cumucurapo, (or The Place of the
Silk Cotton Tree). He withdrew to Margarita, but he returned a year later and built a settlement at Cumucurapo (modern
Mucurapo in what is now
Port of Spain). After failing to attract more settlers to Trinidad, Sedeño was forced to withdraw in 1534.
In 1553 Juan Sedeño was authorised to settle Trinidad, but the contract was never fulfilled. In 1569
Juan Troche Ponce de León built the "town of the Circumcision", probably around modern
Laventille
Laventille is a ward of Trinidad and Tobago.
Etymology
The name ''Laventille'' hearkens back to colonial times, especially when the French dominated the cultural traditions of the island. One etymological derivation of the name is because the no ...
. In 1570 this settlement was abandoned. In 1592
Antonio de Berrio established the first lasting settlement, the town of
San José de Oruña (the modern St. Joseph).
Sir Walter Raleigh, who was searching for ''El Dorado'', arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595 and
soon attacked San José and captured and interrogated de Berrío, obtaining much information from him and from the
cacique Topiawari.
[Whitehead, 1997.]
Lack of Spanish ships arriving on a regular basis forced the settlers to trade with the English, French and Dutch, in violation of the Spanish Exclusive. The Spanish also lacked the means to defend the colony, which consisted of only 24 Spanish settlers in 1625. Thus the Dutch attacked St. Joseph with impunity in 1637. By 1671, the island included 80 settlers and 80 "domesticated" Amerindians.
By 1772, the Spanish capital of St. Joseph had a population of 326 Spaniards and 417 Amerindians. Yet the houses consisted of mud huts with thatch roofs. In general, lacking gold, the island was poor and undeveloped, inducing many to leave.
The
Captaincy General of Venezuela
The Captaincy General of Venezuela ( es, Capitanía General de Venezuela), also known as the Kingdom of Venezuela (), was an administrative district of colonial Spain, created on September 8, 1777, through the Royal Decree of Graces of 1777, t ...
was created on 8 September 1777, through the Royal Decree of Graces of Charles III of Bourbon, to provide more autonomy for the provinces of Venezuela (include Trinidad), previously under the jurisdiction of the
Viceroyalty of New Granada
The Viceroyalty of New Granada ( es, Virreinato de Nueva Granada, links=no ) also called Viceroyalty of the New Kingdom of Granada or Viceroyalty of Santafé was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in norther ...
and the
Audiencia of Santo Domingo. The crown established a unified government in political (
governorship
A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
), military (
captaincy general), fiscal (
intendancy) and judicial (''
audiencia'') affairs. Its creation was part of the
Bourbon Reforms
The Bourbon Reforms ( es, Reformas Borbónicas) consisted of political and economic changes promulgated by the Spanish Monarchy, Spanish Crown under various kings of the House of Bourbon, since 1700, mainly in the 18th century. The beginning of ...
and laid the groundwork for the future nation of Venezuela, in particular by orienting the
province of Maracaibo towards the
province of Caracas.
Colonial settlement of Tobago
In Tobago, the first
Dutch
Dutch commonly refers to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
* Dutch people ()
* Dutch language ()
Dutch may also refer to:
Places
* Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States
* Pennsylvania Dutch Country
People E ...
colony of Nieuw-Walcheren ("New
Walcheren
Walcheren () is a region and former island in the Dutch province of Zeeland at the mouth of the Scheldt estuary. It lies between the Eastern Scheldt in the north and the Western Scheldt in the south and is roughly the shape of a rhombus. The two ...
") was short-lived. 68 colonists established Fort Vlissingen ("Fort Flushing") near modern
Plymouth in 1628. They were reinforced by a few hundred more settlers from
Zeeland
, nl, Ik worstel en kom boven("I struggle and emerge")
, anthem = "Zeeuws volkslied"("Zeelandic Anthem")
, image_map = Zeeland in the Netherlands.svg
, map_alt =
, m ...
in 1629 and 1632.
[Ramerini, Marco. ''Colonial Voyage''.]
Dutch and Courlanders on Tobago: A History of the First Settlements, 16281677
". Accessed 23 November 2012. Attempted colonies by
Courland in 1637, 1639, and 1642 and
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
in 1649, 1642, and 1647 all failed.
In May and September 1654, Courish and Dutch colonies were reestablished successfully. The Courish colony of ''Neu-Kurland'' ("New Courland") was centered at Fort Jacob on
Great Courland Bay
Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements
* Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size
* Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent
People
* List of people known as "the Great"
*Artel Great (born ...
. The Dutch colony on the other side of the island had three forts: Lampsinsberg, Beveren, and Bellavista. In 1658, 500 Frenchmen joined the Dutch colony but formed their own settlement called Three Rivers (''Le Quartier des trois Rivières'').
On 11 December 1659, the Courlanders peaceably surrendered their colony to the Dutch. At the time, the island held about 1,500 Europeans and around 7,000 African slaves working on 120 plantations, supporting six or seven
sugar mills and two
rum
Rum is a liquor made by fermenting and then distilling sugarcane molasses or sugarcane juice. The distillate, a clear liquid, is usually aged in oak barrels. Rum is produced in nearly every sugar-producing region of the world, such as the Ph ...
distilleries
Distillation, or classical distillation, is the process of separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation, usually inside an apparatus known as a still. Dry distillation is the heat ...
.
British Jamaican pirates captured the island in January 1666; the official English garrison surrendered to a French attack in August the same year. The Dutch admiral
Abraham Crijnssen
Abraham Crijnssen (died 1 February 1669) was a Dutch naval commander, notable for capturing the English colony in Suriname in 1667 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, resulting in the establishment of a long-term colony under Dutch control. The ...
reclaimed a deserted colony in April 1667 and reestablished a fort. An attempt to restore the Courish Fort Jacob was suppressed in December 1668. In December, 1672, the British attacked and destroyed the Dutch colony as part of the
Third Anglo-Dutch War
The Third Anglo-Dutch War ( nl, Derde Engels-Nederlandse Oorlog), 27 March 1672 to 19 February 1674, was a naval conflict between the Dutch Republic and England, in alliance with France. It is considered a subsidiary of the wider 1672 to 1678 ...
. Dutch control was regained under the ''status quo ante'' provisions of the
Second Treaty of Westminster in 1674; in September 1676, Fort Sterreschans was constructed near the ruins of Fort Vlissingen. This star fort was reinforced in February 1677, but French attacks in February, March, and December of that year finally succeeded in killing the Dutch governor and capturing the island.
In 1749, Britain and France agreed to keep the island neutral, but Britain took control after 1763, prompting France to capture the island in 1781, then Britain to recapture the island in 1793. The population in 1771 was 5,084, of which only 243 were white and 4,716 were slaves. In 1791 the population was 15,020, of which 541 were white and 14,170 were slaves. There were then 37 sugar factories, 99 cotton factories, and 4 coffee factories. After nutmeg was discovered in 1768, 40 nutmeg plantations were started. The island became a British acquisition for good in 1802, with a ratified treaty in 1814.
Spanish missions in Trinidad
Spanish missions
The Spanish missions in the Americas were Catholic missions established by the Spanish Empire during the 16th to 19th centuries in the period of the Spanish colonization of the Americas. These missions were scattered throughout the entirety of ...
were established as part of the
Spanish colonization
The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
here as in its other new
New World
The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. ...
conquests. In 1687 the
Catalan
Catalan may refer to:
Catalonia
From, or related to Catalonia:
* Catalan language, a Romance language
* Catalans, an ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Northern or southern Catalonia
Places
* 13178 Catalan, asteroid #1 ...
Capuchin friars were given responsibility for the
conversion
Conversion or convert may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* "Conversion" (''Doctor Who'' audio), an episode of the audio drama ''Cyberman''
* "Conversion" (''Stargate Atlantis''), an episode of the television series
* "The Conversion" ...
of the
indigenous
Indigenous may refer to:
*Indigenous peoples
*Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention
*Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band
*Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...
population of Trinidad and the
Guianas. Tensions between priests and Amerindians led to the ''
Arena Massacre'' of 1699, wherein the Amerindians murdered the priests. After being hunted by the Spanish, the survivors are reported to have committed suicide by jumping off cliffs into the sea. In 1713 the missions were handed over to the ''secular clergy''. Due to shortages of missionaries, although the missions were established they often went without Christian instruction for long periods of time.
Between 1687 and 1700 several missions were founded in Trinidad, but only four survived as Amerindian villages throughout the 18th century – ''La Anuncíata de Nazaret de Savana Grande'' (modern
Princes Town
Princes Town is a town within the Princes Town Regional Corporation, located on southern Trinidad island in Trinidad and Tobago. The population of the town is 28,335.
History
Founded as the Amerindian '' Mission of Savana Grande'', the town ...
), ''Purísima Concepción de María Santísima de Guayri'' (modern
San Fernando), ''Santa Ana de Savaneta'' (modern Savonetta), ''Nuestra Señora de Montserrate'' (probably modern Mayo). The mission of ''Santa Rosa de Arima'' was established in 1789 when Amerindians from the former ''
encomiendas'' of
Tacarigua
Tacarigua (originally San Pablo de Tacarigua) is a town in the East–West Corridor of Trinidad and Tobago, located east of Tunapuna, north of Trincity and west of Arouca. It is on the banks of the Tacarigua River. The city is governed by the T ...
and ''Arauca'' (
Arouca) were relocated further east and settled in Santa Rosa close to today's town of
Arima
Arima, officially The Royal Chartered Borough of Arima is the easternmost and second largest in area of the three boroughs of Trinidad and Tobago. It is geographically adjacent to Sangre Grande and Arouca at the south central foothills of th ...
).
French settlement in Trinidad
Although Spanish settlement began in the 16th century, the census of 1777 recorded only 2,763 people as living on the island, including some 2,000+ Arawaks.
In 1777, Roume de St Laurent proposed French planters from the islands of Martinique, Guadeloupe, Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Grenada, and their African slaves, immigrate to Trinidad. He estimated 1,532 whites, with 33,322 of their slaves, would be interested in such a proposal.
The Spanish gave many incentives to lure settlers to the island, including exemption from taxes for ten years and land grants in accordance to the terms set out in the Cedula. In 1783, the proclamation of a
Cedula of Population by the Spanish Crown granted 32 acres (129,000 m
2) of land to each
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
* Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...
who settled in Trinidad and half as much for each slave that they brought. Uniquely, 16 acres (65,000 m
2) was offered to each ''
Free Coloured
In the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, free people of color (French: ''gens de couleur libres''; Spanish: ''gente de color libre'') were primarily people of mixed African, European, and Native American descent who were not ...
'' or ''Free Person of Colour'' (''
gens de couleur
In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; plural: ''gentes'' ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same nomen and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens was called a ''stirps'' (plural: ''stirpes''). The ''gen ...
libre'', as they were later known), and half as much for each slave they brought. French planters with their slaves, free coloureds and mulattos from neighboring islands of
Grenada,
Guadeloupe,
Martinique
Martinique ( , ; gcf, label=Martinican Creole, Matinik or ; Kalinago: or ) is an island and an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France. An integral part of the French Republic, Martinique is located in ...
and
Dominica migrated to the Trinidad during the French Revolution. These new immigrants establishing local communities of
Blanchisseuse
Blanchisseuse (pronounced, in the local English dialect, "blan-chee-shears") is a village in Trinidad and Tobago. It is located about midway along the north coast of Trinidad on the northern slope of the Northern Range, about 24 km north ...
,
Champs Fleurs,
Paramin
Paramin is a village located on one of the highest points of western area of the Northern Range in Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, which forms part of the Maraval area. It is a sprawling, steep and mountainous village whose residents have traditio ...
,
Cascade,
Carenage
Carenage is a town in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It is located in northwestern Trinidad, and is administered by the Diego Martin Regional Corporation. Located close to Chaguaramas, it is more of a residential area than a commercial or i ...
and Laventille. This resulted in Trinidad having the unique feature of a large French-speaking ''Free Coloured'' slave-owning class.
By the time the island was surrendered to the British in 1797 the population had increased to 17,643: 2,086 whites, 4,466 free people of colour, 1,082 Amerindians, and 10,009 African slaves. In addition, there were 159 sugar estates, 130 coffee estates, 60 cocoa estates, and 103 cotton estates. Yet, the island remained unfortified.
British period
In 1797, a British force led by
General Sir Ralph Abercromby launched the
invasion of Trinidad. His squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of
Chaguaramas. The Spanish
Governor Chacón decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad thus became a British
crown colony, with a French-speaking population and Spanish laws.
British rule was formalized under the
Treaty of Amiens
The Treaty of Amiens (french: la paix d'Amiens, ) temporarily ended hostilities between France and the United Kingdom at the end of the War of the Second Coalition. It marked the end of the French Revolutionary Wars; after a short peace it s ...
(1802).
British rule led to an influx of settlers from the United Kingdom and the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. English, Scots, Irish, German and Italian families arrived. Under British rule, new estates were created and the import of slaves did increase, but this was the period of
abolitionism in England and the slave trade was under attack.
[Brereton, Bridget (1981). ''A History of Modern Trinidad 1783–1962''. London: Heinemann Educational Books ][Williams, Eric (1962). ''History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago''. London: Andre Deutsch.] Slavery was
abolished in 1833, after which former slaves served an "
apprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a system for training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study (classroom work and reading). Apprenticeships can also enable practitioners to gain a ...
" period which ended on 1 August 1838 with full emancipation. An overview of the populations statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80% of slave owners having fewer than 10 slaves each.
In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.
On 20 Oct. 1889, the British Government made Tobago a ward of Trinidad.
End of slavery
In August, 1816, seven hundred former
slaves from the U.S.A. arrived, having served for fourteen months in the (second British)
Corps of Colonial Marines
The Corps of Colonial Marines were two different British Marine units raised from former black slaves for service in the Americas, at the behest of Alexander Cochrane. The units were created at two separate periods: 1808-1810 during the Napol ...
at the
Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda
HMD Bermuda ( Her/His Majesty's Dockyard, Bermuda) was the principal base of the Royal Navy in the Western Atlantic between American independence and the Cold War. The Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda had occupied a useful position astride ...
. After rejecting British government orders for transfer to the
West India Regiment
The West India Regiments (WIR) were infantry units of the British Army recruited from and normally stationed in the British colonies of the Caribbean between 1795 and 1927. In 1888 the two West India Regiments then in existence were reduced t ...
s, and on the
Admiralty
Admiralty most often refers to:
*Admiralty, Hong Kong
*Admiralty (United Kingdom), military department in command of the Royal Navy from 1707 to 1964
*The rank of admiral
*Admiralty law
Admiralty can also refer to:
Buildings
* Admiralty, Traf ...
refusing to continue responsibility for them, they finally accepted, but only with reluctance, a government offer of settlement in Trinidad. These ex-
Colonial Marines (aka "Merikens") were organised by the authorities in villages according to their military companies (so-called "company towns").
In the Colony of Trinidad and Tobago, as in other Caribbean slave colonies, an attempt was made to circumvent the
abolition of slavery
Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the movement to end slavery. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and liberate the enslaved people.
The British ...
in 1833. The first announcement from
Whitehall
Whitehall is a road and area in the City of Westminster, Central London. The road forms the first part of the A3212 road from Trafalgar Square to Chelsea. It is the main thoroughfare running south from Trafalgar Square towards Parliament Sq ...
in England that slaves would be totally freed by 1840 was made in 1833. In the meantime, slaves on plantations were expected to remain where they were and work as "apprentices" for the next six years.
Trinidad and Tobago demonstrated a successful use of
non-violent
Nonviolence is the personal practice of not causing harm to others under any condition. It may come from the belief that hurting people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and it may refer to a general philosoph ...
protest and
passive resistance
Nonviolent resistance (NVR), or nonviolent action, sometimes called civil resistance, is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, ...
. On 1 August 1834, an unarmed group of mainly elderly ex-slaves being addressed by the Governor at Government House about the new laws, began chanting: "Pas de six ans. Point de six ans" ("Not six years. No six years"), drowning out the voice of the Governor.
Peaceful protests continued until a resolution to abolish apprenticeship was passed and de facto freedom was achieved. This may have been partially due to the influence of Dr. Jean Baptiste Phillipe's book ''A Free Mulatto'' (1824). At the request of Governor Sir George Fitzgerald Hill, on 25 July, "Dr. Jean Baptiste Phillipe the first coloured member of the Council, proposed a resolution to end apprenticeship and this was passed.
..Full emancipation for all was finally legally granted ahead of schedule on 1 August 1838."
Agricultural development and indentured labour
The
sugarcane plantations
A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. Th ...
which dominated the economy of Trinidad and Tobago in the 19th century gradually gave ground to the cultivation of
cacao. Trinidad and Tobago
chocolate
Chocolate is a food made from roasted and ground cacao seed kernels that is available as a liquid, solid, or paste, either on its own or as a flavoring agent in other foods. Cacao has been consumed in some form since at least the Olmec civ ...
became a high-priced, much sought-after commodity. The
Colonial
Colonial or The Colonial may refer to:
* Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)
Architecture
* American colonial architecture
* French Colonial
* Spanish Colonial architecture
Automobiles
* Colonial (1920 au ...
government opened land to settlers interested in establishing cacao estates. French Creoles (white Trinidadian elites descended from the original French settlers) were being marginalised economically by large English business concerns who were buying up sugar plantations, and this gave them a fresh avenue of economic development.
Venezuelan farmers with experience in cacao cultivation were also encouraged to settle in Trinidad and Tobago, where they provided much of the early labour in these estates. Many of the former cocoa-producing areas of Trinidad retain a distinctly Spanish flavour and many of the descendants of the
Cocoa panyols
The Panyols are a pardo (tri-racial) ethnic group in Trinidad and Tobago of Afro-Indigenous descent, primarily of mixed South American Amerindian, Trinidad and Tobago Amerindian, Afro-Trinidadian and Spanish descent. The name is a derivat ...
(from 'espagnol') remain in these areas including Trinidad and Tobago's most famous
cricket
Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a field at the centre of which is a pitch with a wicket at each end, each comprising two bails balanced on three stumps. The batting side scores runs by str ...
er,
Brian Lara.
In 1844, the British Government allowed the immigration of 2,500 Indian workers as
indentured servants
Indentured servitude is a form of labor in which a person is contracted to work without salary for a specific number of years. The contract, called an "indenture", may be entered "voluntarily" for purported eventual compensation or debt repayment, ...
, from Calcutta and Madras. According to Williams, this was an effort to provide "an adequate and dependable supply of labour." One third of the cost of passage, including return, was to borne as a public expense. Additional funds were provided for the Office of Protector of Immigrants, medical and police services. Wages were set at $2.40 per month for males, and $1.45 per month for females. In 1899, the working day was fixed at 9 hours. They could buy a plot of land in exchange for return passage. Between 1838 and 1917, 145,000 Indians immigrated to Trinidad.
There were also workers brought from China at about the same time:
In Trinidad there were, about twenty years ago .e. ca.-1886 4,000 or 5,000 Chinese, but they have decreased to probably about 2,000 or 3,000, ,200 in 1900
The comma is a punctuation mark that appears in several variants in different languages. It has the same shape as an apostrophe or single closing quotation mark () in many typefaces, but it differs from them in being placed on the baseline o ...
They used to work in sugar plantations, but are now principally shopkeepers, as well as general merchants, miners and railway builders, etc.
Many Indian immigrants who had completed their
indentureship also established cocoa estates, most notable of them being
Haji Gokool Meah, a
Kashmiri-born immigrant who went on to the become one of the wealthiest men in Trinidad and Tobago. The Indian community has steadily prospered and grown until now it makes up about 35% of the population of the nation (the largest ethnic group by about 1%).
The arrival of ''
witches' broom'' and ''
black pod'' diseases in the 1930s, coupled with the
Great Depression, destroyed the cacao industry in Trinidad and Tobago. Although prices for Trinidad and Tobago
cocoa beans remains high on the world markets, cocoa is no more than a marginal crop.
Relations between the Indian immigrants, and both the British, and the black population were generally strained, and occasionally erupted into violence such as the 1884
Hosay massacre.
Discovery of oil
The American Merrimac Oil Company drilled an early oil well at
La Brea at Trinidad and Tobago in 1857, where oil was struck at . Also mentioned is the pioneering work of Capt. Darwent with his Paria Petroleum Company Limited, and Conrad F. Stollmeyer (who was great grandfather of Republic Bank's then Chairman, former West Indies cricket captain, Jeffrey Stollmeyer), an entrepreneur of that period who felt that a combustible fuel could not be distilled out of the asphalt from the pitch lake. The other point of view from Capt. Darwent was that a combustible fuel, refined from oil drilled from the earth would be the ideal fuel for the future."
In either 1865, 1866, or 1867, according to different accounts, the American civil engineer, Walter Darwent, discovered and produced oil at
Aripero. Efforts in 1867 to begin production by the Trinidad and Tobago Petroleum Company at La Brea and the Pariah Petroleum Company at Aripero were poorly financed and abandoned after Walter Darwent died of
yellow fever
Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration. In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains – particularly in the back – and headaches. Symptoms typically improve within five days. ...
.
In 1893 Mr Randolph Rust, along with his neighbour, Mr Lee Lum, drilled a successful well near Darwent's original one. By early 1907 major drilling operations began, roads and other infrastructure were built. Annual production of oil in Trinidad and Tobago reached by 1910 and kept rapidly increasing year by year.
Estimated oil production in Trinidad and Tobago in 2005 was about .
20th-century political development
Trinidad was ruled as a
Crown colony with no elected representation until 1925. Although
Tobago
Tobago () is an List of islands of Trinidad and Tobago, island and Regions and municipalities of Trinidad and Tobago, ward within the Trinidad and Tobago, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It is located northeast of the larger island of Trini ...
had an elected Assembly, this was dissolved prior to the union of the two islands. In 1925 the first elections to the
Legislative Council were held. Seven of the thirteen members were elected, the others were nominated by the Governor. The franchise was determined by income, property and residence qualifications, and was limited to men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30. The 1946 elections were the first with universal adult suffrage.
Labour movement
Labour riots in 1937 led by
T.U.B. Butler (an immigrant from the neighbouring island of Grenada) shook the country and led to the formation of the modern
Trade Union
A trade union (labor union in American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers intent on "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment", ch. I such as attaining better wages and benefits ...
movement. Butler was jailed from 1937 to 1939, but was re-arrested when the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
entered
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
and jailed for the duration of the war. After his release in 1945 Butler reorganised his political party, the
British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party. This party won a plurality in the
1950 general elections, the establishment feared Butler as a radical and instead
Albert Gomes
Albert Maria Gomes (25 March 1911 – 13 January 1978) was a Trinidadian unionist, politician, and writer of Portuguese descent, was the first Chief Minister of Trinidad and Tobago. He was the founder of the Political Progress Groups and later led ...
became the first
Chief Minister
A chief minister is an elected or appointed head of government of – in most instances – a sub-national entity, for instance an administrative subdivision or federal constituent entity. Examples include a state (and sometimes a union terri ...
of Trinidad and Tobago.
Representative government
The 1956 general elections saw the emergence of the
People's National Movement
The People's National Movement (PNM) is the longest-serving and oldest active political party in Trinidad and Tobago. The party has dominated national and local politics for much of Trinidad and Tobago's history, contesting all elections sinc ...
under the leadership of
Eric Williams
Eric Eustace Williams (25 September 1911 – 29 March 1981) was a Trinidad and Tobago politician who is regarded by some as the " Father of the Nation", having led the then British Colony of Trinidad and Tobago to majority rule on 28 October ...
. The PNM, opposed by Dr. Rudranath Capildeo of the
Democratic Labor Party and
Ashford Sinanan
Ashford Sastri Sinanan (; 2 January 1923 – 1994) was a politician from Trinidad and Tobago who served in various roles prior to and following Trinidad and Tobago’s independence in 1962. Along with his brother, Mitra, Sinanan helped draft po ...
, who later founded the West Indian National Party (WINP), continued to dominate politics in Trinidad and Tobago until 1986. The party won every General Election between 1956 and 1981. Williams became
prime minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister i ...
at independence, and remained in that position until his death in 1981.
Federation
In 1958, the United Kingdom tried to establish an independent
West Indies Federation
The West Indies Federation, also known as the West Indies, the Federation of the West Indies or the West Indian Federation, was a short-lived political union that existed from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962. Various islands in the Caribbean that ...
comprising most of the former British West Indies. However, disagreement over the structure of the federation led to
Jamaica
Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
's withdrawal. Eric Williams responded to this with his now famous calculation "One from ten leaves nought." Trinidad and Tobago chose not to bear the financial burden without Jamaica's assistance, and the Federation collapsed.
Independence
Trinidad and Tobago achieved full independence via the
Trinidad and Tobago Independence Act 1962 on 31 August 1962 within the
Commonwealth with
Queen Elizabeth II as its titular
head of state
A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona who officially embodies a state Foakes, pp. 110–11 " he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representatitve of its international persona." in its unity and l ...
. On 1 August 1976, the country became a republic, and the last
Governor-General,
Sir Ellis Clarke, became the first President.
Black Power and labour unrest
In 1968 the
National Joint Action Committee
The National Joint Action Committee (NJAC) is a political party in Trinidad and Tobago.
History
The party was established in February 1969 by Makandal Daaga Makandal Akhenation Daaga (born Geddes Granger; 13 August 1935 – 8 August 2016) was ...
was formed by members of the Guild of Undergraduates at the St Augustine campus of the
University of the West Indies, under the leadership of
Geddes Granger Makandal Akhenation Daaga (born Geddes Granger; 13 August 1935 – 8 August 2016) was a Trinidad and Tobago political activist and former revolutionary. He was the leader of the 1970 Black Power Revolution. During the unrest he was arrested and ch ...
. In 1969 it was formally launched to protest the arrest of West Indian students at
Sir George Williams University
Sir George Williams University was a university in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It merged with Loyola College to create Concordia University on August 24, 1974.
History
In 1851, the first YMCA in North America was established on Sainte-Hélène ...
in
Montreal
Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the second-most populous city in Canada and most populous city in the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1642 as '' Ville-Marie'', or "City of Mary", it is named after Mount Royal, the triple ...
. Together with Trade Unions and other groups, this led to the birth of the
Black Power movement. In 1970 a series of marches and strikes led to the declaration of a
State of Emergency and the arrest of 15 Black Power leaders. In sympathy with the arrested leaders, a portion of the
Trinidad and Tobago Regiment
The Trinidad and Tobago Regiment is the main ground force element of the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force. It has approximately 10,000 men and women organized into a Regiment Headquarters (located in Port of Spain) and four battalions. There is ...
, led by
Raffique Shah and
Rex Lassalle mutinied and took hostages at the Teteron Barracks (located on the
Chaguaramas Peninsula). However, the Coast Guard remained loyal and was able to isolate the mutineers at Teteron (as the only way out was along a narrow coastal road). After 5 days the mutineers surrendered.
Political difficulties in the post-Black Power era culminated in the "No Vote" campaign of 1971 (which resulted in the PNM winning all the seats in
Parliament
In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government via hearings and inquiries. Th ...
). In 1973, in the face of a collapsing economy Eric Williams was prepared to resign as Prime Minister. However, the outbreak of the
1973 Arab-Israeli War led to the recovery of oil prices and Williams remained in office.
Oil boom and bust
The high oil prices of the 1970s and early 1980s led to an ''
oil boom'' which resulted in a large increase in salaries, standards of living, and
corruption.
In 1979, construction on the
Eric Williams Plaza {{Infobox building
, name = Eric Williams Plaza
, image = Eric Williams PlazaTrinidad.jpg
, image_size = 220
, caption = Eric Williams Plaza in Port of Spain, Trinidad
, start_date = 1979
, compl ...
began. It would eventually finish in 1986. It remained the tallest building in Trinidad and Tobago until the construction of the Nicholas Tower in 2003.
Williams died in office in 1981. The PNM remained in power following the death of Dr. Williams, but its 30-year rule ended in 1986 when the
National Alliance for Reconstruction
The National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR) was the governing party in Trinidad and Tobago between 1986 and 1991. The party has been inactive since 2005.
History
The party was established in 1986, aiming to be a multi-racial party. Nohlen, D ...
(NAR), a multi-ethnic coalition aimed at uniting Trinidadians of
Afro-Trinidadian
Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians (or just Afro-Trinbagonians) are people from Trinidad and Tobago who are of West African descent. Social interpretations of race in Trinidad and Tobago are often used to dictate who is of West African descent ...
and
Indo-Trinidadian
Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians or Indian-Trinidadians and Tobagonians, are people of Indian origin who are nationals of Trinidad and Tobago whose ancestors came from India and the wider subcontinent beginning in 1845.
Indo-Trinidadians and ...
descent, won a landslide victory by capturing 33 of 36 seats. Tobago's
A. N. R. Robinson
Arthur Napoleon Raymond Robinson (16 December 1926 – 9 April 2014; known as A. N. R. or "Ray" Robinson), was the third President of Trinidad and Tobago, serving from 19 March 1997 to 17 March 2003. He was also Trinidad and Tobago's third Prime ...
, the political leader of the NAR, was named Prime Minister. The NAR also won 11 of the 12 seats in the Tobago House of Assembly. The NAR began to break down when the Indian component withdrew in 1988.
Basdeo Panday
Basdeo Panday (; born 25 May 1933) is a Trinidadian and Tobagonian lawyer, politician, trade unionist, economist, actor, and former civil servant who served as the fifth Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago from 1995 to 2001. He was the first ...
, leader of the old
United Labour Front
The United Labour Front (ULF) was a political party in Trinidad and Tobago and the main opposition party between 1976 and 1986. It was a successor to the Democratic Labour Party and the Workers and Farmers Party.
History
The party was establishe ...
(ULF), formed the new opposition with the
United National Congress
The United National Congress ( UNC or UNCTT) is one of two major political parties in Trinidad and Tobago and the current parliamentary opposition. The UNC is a Centre-left politics, centre-left party. It was founded in 1989 by Basdeo Panday, a ...
(UNC). The NAR's margin was immediately reduced to 27 seats, with six for the UNC and three for the PNM.
1990 Jamaat-al-Muslimeen coup attempt
In July 1990, the
Jamaat al Muslimeen
The Jamaat al Muslimeen (, also transliterated as Jamaat-ul Muslimeen or Jama'at al-Muslimeen, ''"School of Muslims", "Group of Muslims", "The Muslim Group", "The Muslim Assembly", "The Muslim Society", "The Muslim Community"'') is a radical extr ...
, an extremist Black
Muslim group with an unresolved grievance against the government over land claims, tried to overthrow the NAR government. The group held the prime minister and members of parliament hostage for five days while rioting shook
Port of Spain. After a long standoff with the police and military, the Jamaat al Muslimeen leader,
Yasin Abu Bakr, and his followers surrendered to Trinidadian authorities. Having had the matter referred back to the local courts by the Privy Council with a clear indication of a view that the amnesty was valid, in July 1992, the High Court upheld the validity of a government amnesty given to the Jamaat members during the hostage crisis. Abu Bakr and 113 other Jamaat members were jailed for two years while the courts debated the amnesty's validity. All 114 members were eventually released. Subsequent to this, the UK
Privy Council deemed the amnesty invalid but expressed the view that it would be improper to re-arrest the 114 accused.
Later developments
In December 1991, the NAR captured only the two districts in Tobago. The PNM, led by
Patrick Manning, carried a majority of 21 seats, and the UNC came in second. Manning became the new Prime Minister and
Basdeo Panday
Basdeo Panday (; born 25 May 1933) is a Trinidadian and Tobagonian lawyer, politician, trade unionist, economist, actor, and former civil servant who served as the fifth Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago from 1995 to 2001. He was the first ...
continued to lead the opposition. In November 1995,
Manning called early elections, in which the PNM and UNC both won 17 seats and the NAR won two seats. The UNC allied with the NAR and formed the new government, with Panday becoming prime minister – the first prime minister of Indo-Trinidadian descent.
Basdeo Panday was
Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago from 1995 to 2001. He led United National Congress (UNC) until 2010.
Elections held in
December 2000 returned the UNC to power when they won 19 seats, while the opposition PNM won 16, and the NAR 1. The UNC government fell in October 2001 with the defection of three of its parliamentarians amidst allegations of corruption in the then UNC government, and the
December 2001 elections resulted in an even 18 to 18 split between the UNC and the PNM. President Robinson appointed Patrick Manning Prime Minister despite the fact that the UNC won the popular vote and that Panday was the sitting Prime Minister. Despite the fact that Manning was unable to attract a majority (and Parliament was thus unable to sit), he delayed calling elections until
October 2002. The PNM formed the next government after winning 20 seats, while the UNC won 16. Both parties are committed to free market economic policies and increased foreign investment. Trinidad and Tobago has remained cooperative with the United States in the regional fight against narcotics trafficking and on other issues.
Patrick Manning was
Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago from 1991 to 1995 and again from 2001 to 2010. He also led People's National Movement (PNM) from 1987 to 2010.
The serious crime situation in the country has led to a severe deterioration in security conditions in the country.
On 26 May 2010,
Kamla Persad-Bissessar
Kamla Persad-Bissessar ( ; born Kamla Susheila Persad, 22 April 1952), often referred to by her initials KPB, is a Trinidadian and Tobagonian lawyer, politician and educator who is the Leader of the Opposition of Trinidad and Tobago, politic ...
, leader of the
People's Partnership
The People's Partnership (PP) was a political coalition in Trinidad and Tobago among five political parties: the United National Congress (UNC), the Congress of the People (COP), the Tobago Organization of the People (TOP), Movement for Social ...
, was sworn in as the country's first female Prime Minister. On 21 August 2011, she asked President
George Maxwell Richards to declare a limited
state of emergency. On 9 September 2015, Dr.
Keith Rowley
Keith Christopher Rowley (born 24 October 1949) is a Trinidadian and Tobagonian politician serving as the seventh prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, first elected into office on 9 September 2015 and again following the 2020 general elect ...
was sworn in as new Prime Minister, following the
election
An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has opera ...
victory of his People’s National Movement (PNM).
On 19 March 2018 Trinidad's first female President, Ms.
Paula-Mae Weekes
Paula-Mae Weekes (born 23 December 1958) is a Trinidadian politician and jurist who is the sixth president of Trinidad and Tobago. She is the first female President of Trinidad and Tobago, as well as the second female head of state in Trinidad an ...
, was sworn in the mainly ceremonial post. In August 2020, the governing People's National Movement won
general election, meaning the incumbent Prime Minister Keith Rowley will serve a second term.
See also
*
Spanish colonization of the Americas
*
Dutch colonization of the Americas
The Netherlands began its colonization of the Americas with the establishment of trading posts and plantations, which preceded the much wider known colonization activities of the Dutch in Asia. While the first Dutch fort in Asia was built in 1600 ...
*
Curonian colonization of the Americas
The Curonian colonization of the Americas was performed by the Duchy of Courland (now Latvia), which was the second-smallest state to colonise the Americas, after the Knights of Malta. It had a colony on the island of Tobago from 1654 to 1659 an ...
*
British colonization of the Americas
*
French colonization of the Americas
France began colonizing the Americas in the 16th century and continued into the following centuries as it established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere. France established colonies in much of eastern North America, on several Caribbe ...
*
History of the Americas
The prehistory of the Americas (North, South, and Central America, and the Caribbean) begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an ice age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from the peopl ...
*
History of the British West Indies
*
History of North America
History of North America encompasses the past developments of people populating the continent of North America. While it was widely believed that continent first became a human habitat when people migrated across the Bering Sea 40,000 to 17,0 ...
*
History of the Caribbean
The history of the Caribbean reveals the significant role the region played in the colonial struggles of the European powers since the 15th century. In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean and claimed the region for Spain. The ...
*
List of governors of the Windward Islands
This is a list of viceroys in the British Windward Islands. The colony of the Windward Islands was created in 1833 and consisted of Grenada, Barbados (to 1885), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Tobago (to 1889), St. Lucia (from 1838), and Domin ...
*
List of prime ministers of Trinidad and Tobago
*
Politics of Trinidad and Tobago
The politics of Trinidad and Tobago function within the framework of a unitary state regulated by a parliamentary democracy modelled on that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, from which the country gained its independenc ...
*
West Indies Federation
The West Indies Federation, also known as the West Indies, the Federation of the West Indies or the West Indian Federation, was a short-lived political union that existed from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962. Various islands in the Caribbean that ...
*
Naval Base Trinidad
Naval Base Trinidad, also called NAS Trinidad, NAS Port-of-Spain, was a large United States Navy Naval base built during World War II to support the many naval ships fighting and patrolling the Battle of the Atlantic. The fighting in the area bec ...
(1941–1977)
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
* Aleong, Joe Chin, and Edward B. Proud. 1997. ''The Postal History of Trinidad and Tobago'', Heathfield, East Sussex, England: Proud-Bailey Co. Ltd,
* de Verteuil, Anthony. 1989. ''Eight East Indian Immigrants: Gokool, Soodeen, Sookoo, Capildeo, Beccani, Ruknaddeen, Valiama, Bunsee''
* de Verteuil, Anthony. 1996. ''The Holy Ghost Fathers of Trinidad''. The Litho Press, Port of Spain. .
* Hill, Jonathan D., and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds). 2002. ''Comparative Arawakan Histories''.
* Meighoo, Kirk. 2003. ''Politics in a Half Made Society: Trinidad and Tobago, 1925–2002''
* Newson, Linda A. 1976. ''Aboriginal and Spanish Colonial Trinidad.''
* Sawh, Gobin, Ed. 1992. ''The Canadian Caribbean Connection:'' Bridging North and South: History, Influences, Lifestyles. Carindo Cultural Assoc., Halifax.
* Stark, James H. 1897. ''Stark's Guide-Book and History of Trinidad including Tobago, Granada, and St. Vincent; also a trip up the Orinoco and a description of the great Venezuelan Pitch Lake''. Boston: James H. Stark, publisher; London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company.
* Williams, Eric. 1964. ''History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago'', Andre Deutsch, London.
* Williams, Eric. 1964. ''British Historians and the West Indies'', Port of Spain.
* Naipaul, V. S. 1969. ''The Loss of El Dorado'', Andre Deutsch, London.
Further reading
*Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. ''A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny''. Addison-Wesley Publishing. .
*
*
External links
Tobago: The history of the Dutch and Courlanders settlements*
ttp://guanaguanaresingsat.blogspot.com.au/2011_07_01_archive.html Guanaguanare – the Laughing Gull. Carib Indians in Trinidad – includes 2 videos
{{History of North America
Trinidad And Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated south of ...
Former colonies in North America
Former colonies in South America
British colonization of the Americas
Dutch colonization of the Americas
French colonization of the Americas
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated south of ...
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated south of ...