phylogenetics In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek language, Greek wikt:φυλή, φυλή/wikt:φῦλον, φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary his ...

, a single-access key (also called dichotomous key, sequential key, analytical key, or pathway key) is an

identification key In biology, an identification key, taxonomic key, or biological key is a printed or computer-aided device that aids the identification of biological entities, such as plants, animals, fossils, microorganisms, and pollen grains. Identification k ...

where the sequence and structure of identification steps is fixed by the author of the key. At each point in the decision process, multiple alternatives are offered, each leading to a result or a further choice. The alternatives are commonly called "leads", and the set of leads at a given point a "couplet". Single access keys are closely related to

decision tree A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like model of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one way to display an algorithm that only contains condit ...

s or

self-balancing binary search tree In computer science, a self-balancing binary search tree (BST) is any node-based binary search tree that automatically keeps its height (maximal number of levels below the root) small in the face of arbitrary item insertions and deletions.Donald ...

s. However, to improve the usability and reliability of keys, many single-access keys incorporate reticulation, changing the tree structure into a

directed acyclic graph In mathematics, particularly graph theory, and computer science, a directed acyclic graph (DAG) is a directed graph with no directed cycles. That is, it consists of vertices and edges (also called ''arcs''), with each edge directed from one ve ...

. Single-access keys have been in use for several hundred years. They may be printed in various styles (e. g., linked, nested, indented, graphically branching) or used as interactive, computer-aided keys. In the latter case, either a longer part of the key may be displayed (optionally hyperlinked), or only a single question may be displayed at a time. If the key has several choices it is described as ''polychotomous'' or ''polytomous''. If the entire key consists of exactly two choices at each branching point, the key is called dichotomous. The majority of single-access keys are dichotomous.

Diagnostic ('artificial') versus synoptic ('natural') keys

Any single-access key organizes a large set of items into a structure that breaks them down into smaller, more accessible subsets, with many keys leading to the smallest available classification unit (a

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

infraspecific taxon In botany, an infraspecific name is the scientific name for any taxon below the rank of species, i.e. an infraspecific taxon or infraspecies. (A "taxon", plural "taxa", is a group of organisms to be given a particular name.) The scientific names ...

typically in the form of

binomial nomenclature In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bot ...

). However, a trade-off exists between keys that concentrate on making identification most convenient and reliable (diagnostic keys), and keys which aim to reflect the

scientific classification Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification. A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are organized into groups or types. ...

of organisms (synoptic keys). The first type of keys limits the choice of characteristics to those most reliable, convenient, and available under certain conditions. Multiple diagnostic keys may be offered for the same group of organisms: Diagnostic keys may be designed for field (

field guide A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the "field" or local area where such objects exi ...

s) or laboratory use, for summer or winter use, and they may use geographic distribution or

habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...

preference of organisms as accessory characteristics. They do so at the expense of creating artificial groups in the key. An example of a diagnostic key is shown below. It is not based on the

taxonomic Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification. A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are organized into groups or types. ...

classification of the included species — compare with the botanical classification of oaks. In contrast, synoptic keys follow the

classification as close as possible. Where the classification is already based on phylogenetic studies, the key represents the evolutionary relationships within the group. To achieve this, these keys often have to use more difficult characteristics, which may not always be available in the field, and which may require instruments like a hand lens or microscope. Because of

convergent evolution Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last com ...

, superficially similar species may be separated early in the key, with superficially different, but genetically closely related species being separated much later in the key. Synoptic keys are typically found in scientific treatments of a taxonomic group ("monographs"). An example of a synoptic key (corresponding to the diagnostic key shown below) is shown further below. In

plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclud ...

flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...

and

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...

characteristics often are important for primary taxonomic classification:

Structural variants of single-access keys

The distinction between dichotomous (bifurcating) and polytomous (multifurcating) keys is a structural one, and identification key software may or may not support polytomous keys. This distinction is less arbitrary than it may appear. Allowing a variable number of choices is disadvantageous in the nested display style, where for each couplet in a polytomous key the entire key must be scanned to the end to determine whether more than a second lead may exist or not. Furthermore, if the alternative lead statements are complex (involving more than one characteristic and possibly "and", "or", or "not"), two alternative statements are significantly easier to understand than couplets with more alternatives. However, the latter consideration can easily be accommodated in a polytomous key where couplets based on a single characteristic may have more than two choices, and complex statements may be limited to two alternative leads. Another structural distinction is whether only lead statements or question-answer pairs are supported. Most traditional single-access keys use the "lead-style", where each option consists of a statement, only one of which is correct. Especially computer-aided keys occasionally use the "question-answer-style" instead, where a question is presented with a choice of answers. The second style is well known from

multiple choice Multiple choice (MC), objective response or MCQ (for multiple choice question) is a form of an objective assessment in which respondents are asked to select only correct answers from the choices offered as a list. The multiple choice format is m ...

testing and therefore more intuitive for beginners. However, it creates problems when multiple characteristics need to be combined in a single step (as in ''"Flower red and spines present"'' versus ''"Flowers yellow to reddish-orange, spines absent"'').

Presentation styles

Single-access keys may be presented in different styles. The two most frequently encountered styles are the * Nested style in which all couplets immediately follow their lead, at the expense of separating the leads within a couplet. ** The most frequent subtype of nested keys are called "indented key", where indentation increases with each level. With a large key this can lead to much whitespace in print, and consequently little remaining room for lead text and illustrations. Although "indented key" is sometimes used as a synonym for nested key, the indentation itself is not an essential feature of a nested key. (Examples of non-hyperlinked, indented nested keys may be found a
www.env.gov.bc.ca
* Linked style: The leads within a couplet immediately follow each other, making

polytomous key In phylogenetics, a single-access key (also called dichotomous key, sequential key, analytical key, or pathway key) is an identification key where the sequence and structure of identification steps is fixed by the author of the key. At each point i ...

s easy to achieve. At the end of each lead some form of pointer (a numbering system, hyperlinks, etc.) create the connection to the couplets that follow this lead. The nested style gives an excellent overview over the structure of the key. With a short key and moderate indentation it can be easy to follow and even backtrace an erroneous identification path. The nested style is problematic with polytomous keys, where each key must be scanned to the end to verify that no further leads exist within a couplet. It also does not easily support reticulation (which requires a link method similar to the one used in the linked style).

Advantages and disadvantages

A large amount of knowledge about reliable and efficient identification procedures may be incorporated in good single-access keys. Characteristics that are reliable and convenient to observe most of the time and for most species (or taxa), and which further provide a well-balanced key (the leads splitting number of species evenly) will be preferred at the start of the key. However, in practice it is difficult to achieve this goal for all taxa in all conditions. If the information for a given identification step is not available, several potential leads must be followed and identification becomes increasingly difficult. Although software exists that helps in skipping questions in a single-access key,Lucid Phoenix
/ref> the more general solution to this problem is the construction and use of

multi-access key In biology or medicine, a multi-access key is an identification key which overcomes the problem of the more traditional single-access key In phylogenetics, a single-access key (also called dichotomous key, sequential key, analytical key, or pathway ...

s, allowing a free choice of identification steps and are easily adaptable to different taxa (e.g., very small or very large) as well as different circumstances of identification (e. g., in the field or laboratory).

References

External links