Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...

. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province by population after

Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...

. It shares land borders with the Pakistani provinces of

Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...

to the west and north-west and

to the north. It shares

International border Borders are usually defined as geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities. Political borders c ...

with the

Indian states India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories, with a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and smaller administrative divisions. History Pre-indepen ...

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

and

Rajasthan Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern s ...

to the east; it is also bounded by the

Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel ...

to the south. Sindh's landscape consists mostly of alluvial plains flanking the Indus River, the

Thar Desert The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Subcontinent that covers an area of and forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, a ...

in the eastern portion of the province along the international border with India, and the

Kirthar Mountains The Kirthar Mountains ( ur, كوه کھیرتھر; sd, کير ٿر جبل) are a mountain range that mark the boundary between the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan and Sindh, and which comprise much of the Kirthar National Park. The mountain ra ...

in the western portion of the province. The

economy of Sindh The economy of Sindh is the 2nd largest of all the provinces in Pakistan. Much of Sindh's economy is influenced by the economy of Karachi, the largest city and economic capital of the country. Historically, Sindh's contribution to Pakistan's GDP ...

is the second-largest in Pakistan after the province of Punjab; its provincial capital of

Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...

is the most populous city in the country as well as its main financial hub. Sindh is home to a large portion of Pakistan's industrial sector and contains two of the country's busiest commercial seaports: Port Qasim and the

Port of Karachi The Port of Karachi ( ur, , ''Bandar gāh Karāchī'') is one of South Asia's largest and busiest deep-water seaports, handling about 60% of the nation's cargo (25 million tons per annum) located in Karachi, Pakistan. It is located on the Kar ...

. The remainder of Sindh consists of an

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people t ...

-based economy and produces fruits, consumer items and vegetables for other parts of the country. Sindh is sometimes referred to as the ''Bab-ul Islam'' (), as it was one of the first regions of the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...

to fall under Islamic rule. Parts of the modern-day province were intermittently subject to raids by the

Rashidun army The Rashidun army () was the core of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. The army is reported to have maintained a high level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization, granti ...

during the

early Muslim conquests The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He estab ...

, but the region did not fall under Muslim rule until the Arab invasion of Sind occurred under the

Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by th ...

, headed by

Muhammad ibn Qasim Muḥammad ibn al-Qāsim al-Thaqāfī ( ar, محمد بن القاسم الثقفي; –) was an Arab military commander in service of the Umayyad Caliphate who led the Muslim conquest of Sindh (part of modern Pakistan), inaugurating the Umayy ...

in 712 CE. Ethnic

Sindhi people Sindhis ( sd, سنڌي Perso-Arabic: सिन्धी Devanagari; ) are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group who speak the Sindhi language and are native to the province of Sindh in Pakistan. After the partition of British Indian empire in 1947, m ...

constitute the largest group in the province; Sindh is also the place of residence for the overwhelming majority of Muhajirs (), a multiethnic group of

Indian Muslims Islam is India's second-largest religion, with 14.2% of the country's population, approximately 172.2 million people identifying as adherents of Islam in 2011 Census. India is also the country with the second or third largest number of Muslim ...

who migrated to the region after the

Partition of British India The Partition of British India in 1947 was the change of political borders and the division of other assets that accompanied the dissolution of the British Raj in South Asia and the creation of two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. T ...

in 1947. The province is well known for its distinct culture, which is strongly influenced by Sufism, an important marker of Sindhi identity for both

Hindus Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

and

Muslims Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

. Several important Sindhi Sufi shrines are located throughout the province and attract millions of devotees annually. Sindh is prominent for its history during the

Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second prin ...

under the Indus Valley civilization, and is home to two

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...

-designated

World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...

s: the

Makli Necropolis Makli Necropolis ( ur, ; sd, مڪلي جو مقام) is one of the largest funerary sites in the world, spread over an area of 10 kilometres near the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The site houses approximately 500,000 ...

and

Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Greeks The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, oth ...

who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...

referred to the Indus River as '' Indós'', hence the modern ''Indus''. The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as ''hind''. The word ''Sindh'' is a

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

derivative of the

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

term ''Sindhu,'' meaning "river" - a reference to Indus River. Southworth suggests that the name ''Sindhu'' is in turn derived from ''Cintu'', a Dravidian word for date palm, a tree commonly found in Sindh. The previous spelling "Sind" (from the Perso-Arabic ) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in

Sindh Assembly The Provincial Assembly of Sindh ( ur, ) is a unicameral legislature of elected representatives of the Pakistani provinces, Pakistani province of Sindh, and is located in Karachi, the provincial capital. It was established under Article 106 of ...

, and is now spelt "Sindh."

History

Historical Period (7000 BC-1800)

Prehistoric period

Sindh's first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BC. Permanent settlements at

Mehrgarh Mehrgarh (; ur, ) is a Neolithic archaeological site (dated ) situated on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan in Pakistan. It is located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River and between the modern-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, ...

, currently in

, to the west expanded into Sindh. This culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley civilization around 3000 BC.

Indus Valley civilisation

Sindh was the centre of the

Indus Valley civilisation The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900& ...

, which rivaled the contemporary civilizations of Ancient Egypt and

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...

in size and scope, numbering nearly half a million inhabitants at its height with well-planned grid cities and sewer systems. The primitive village communities in

were still struggling against a difficult highland environment, a highly cultured people was trying to assert itself at

Kot Diji The ancient site at Kot Diji ( sd, ڪوٽ ڏیجي; ur, کوٹ ڈیجی) was the forerunner of the Indus Civilization. The occupation of this site is attested already at 3300 BCE. The remains consist of two parts; the citadel area on high ground ...

. This was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the

ancient world Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cov ...

. It flourished between the 25th and 15th centuries BC in the Indus valley sites of

Mohenjo Daro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Harappa. The people had a high standard of art and craftsmanship and a well-developed system of quasi-pictographic writing which remains un-deciphered. The ruins of the well planned towns, the brick buildings of the common people, roads, public baths and the covered drainage system suggest a highly organized community. There is no evidence of large palaces or large tombs for the elite. The grand and presumably holy site might have been the great bath, which is built upon an artificially created elevation. This civilization collapsed around 1700 BC for reasons that are uncertain; the cause is hotly debated and may have been a massive earthquake, which dried up the Ghaggar River. Skeletons discovered in the ruins of Moan Jo Daro ("mount of dead") were thought to indicate that the city was suddenly attacked and the population was wiped out, but further examinations showed that the marks on the skeletons were due to erosion and not of violence.

Early history

The ancient city of Roruka, identified with modern

Aror Aror ( Sindhi: اروهڙ) or Alor or Arorkot (Sindhi: اروهڙ ڪوٽ) is the medieval name of the city of Rohri (in Sindh, modern Pakistan). Aror once served as the capital of Sindh. History As Roruka, capital of the Sauvira Kingdom, i ...

Rohri Rohri (Sindhi: روهڙي; ur, ) is a city of Sukkur District, Sindh province, Pakistan. It is located on the east bank of the Indus River, located directly across from Sukkur, the third largest city in Sindh. Rohri town is the administrative ...

, was capital of the

Sauvira Kingdom Sauvīra was an ancient kingdom of the lower Indus Valley mentioned in the Late Vedic and early Buddhist literature and the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. It is often mentioned alongside the Sindhu Kingdom. Its capital city was Roruka, identified ...

, and finds mentioned early Buddhist literature as a major trading center. Sindh finds mention in the Indian epic ''

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the s ...

'' as being part of

Bharatvarsha The Republic of India has two principal short names, each of which is historically significant, "India" and "Bharata". A third name, "Hindustān", is sometimes an alternative name for the region comprising most of the modern Indian states o ...

. Sindh was conquered by the

Persian Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Based in Western Asia, it was the largest empire the world had ...

in the sixth century BC. In the late fourth century BC, Sindh was conquered by a mixed army led by

Macedonian Greeks Macedonians ( el, Μακεδόνες, ''Makedónes''), also known as Greek Macedonians or Macedonian Greeks, are a regional and historical population group of ethnic Greeks, inhabiting or originating from the Macedonia (Greece), Greek region o ...

under

. The region remained under control of Greek satraps for only a few decades. After Alexander's death, there was a brief period of

Seleucid The Seleucid Empire (; grc, Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν, ''Basileía tōn Seleukidōn'') was a Greek state in West Asia that existed during the Hellenistic period from 312 BC to 63 BC. The Seleucid Empire was founded by the ...

rule, before Sindh was traded to the Mauryan Empire led by Chandragupta in 305 BC. During the rule of the Mauryan Emperor

Ashoka Ashoka (, ; also ''Asoka''; 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was the third emperor of the Maurya Empire of Indian subcontinent during to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, s ...

, the

Buddhist religion Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

spread to Sindh. Mauryan rule ended in 185 BC with the overthrow of the last king by the

Shunga is a type of Japanese erotic art typically executed as a kind of ukiyo-e, often in woodblock print format. While rare, there are also extant erotic painted handscrolls which predate ukiyo-e. Translated literally, the Japanese word ''shunga' ...

Dynasty. In the disorder that followed, Greek rule returned when

Demetrius I of Bactria Demetrius I Anicetus ( grc, Δημήτριος Ἀνίκητος, Dēmētrios Anikētos, "the unconquered"), also called Damaytra was a Greco-Bactrian and later Indo-Greek king (Yona in Pali language, "Yavana" in Sanskrit) (reigned c. 200–167 ...

led a

Greco-Bactrian The Bactrian Kingdom, known to historians as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom or simply Greco-Bactria, was a Hellenistic-era Greek state, and along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world in Central Asia and the India ...

invasion of India and annexed most of the northwestern lands, including Sindh. Demetrius was later defeated and killed by a usurper, but his descendants continued to rule Sindh and other lands as the

Indo-Greek Kingdom The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent (p ...

. Under the reign of

Menander I Menander I Soter ( grc, Μένανδρος Σωτήρ, Ménandros Sōtḗr, Menander the Saviour; pi, मिलिन्दो, Milinda), was a Greco-Bactrian and later Indo-Greek King (reigned c.165/155Bopearachchi (1998) and (1991), respectivel ...

, many Indo-Greeks followed his example and converted to Buddhism. In the late second century BC,

Scythian The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern * : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Centra ...

tribes shattered the Greco-Bactrian empire and invaded the Indo-Greek lands. Unable to take the

Punjab region Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...

, they invaded South Asia through Sindh, where they became known as

Indo-Scythians Indo-Scythians (also called Indo-Sakas) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples of Scythian origin who migrated from Central Asia southward into modern day Pakistan and Northwestern India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th centu ...

(later

Western Satraps The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh ...

). By the first century AD, the Kushan Empire annexed Sindh. Kushans under

Kanishka Kanishka I (Sanskrit: कनिष्क, '; Greco-Bactrian: Κανηϸκε ''Kanēške''; Kharosthi: 𐨐𐨞𐨁𐨮𐨿𐨐 '; Brahmi: '), or Kanishka, was an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, under whose reign (c. 127–150 CE) the empire ...

were great patrons of Buddhism and sponsored many building projects for local beliefs.

Ahirs Ahir or Aheer are a community of traditionally non-elite pastoralists in India, most members of which identify as being of the Indian Yadav community because they consider the two terms to be synonymous. The Ahirs are variously described as a ...

were also found in large numbers in Sindh.

Abiria ''Abiria'' was the country of the Abhiras (today's Ahirs). It is mentioned in the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' and by Ptolemy in his ''Geographia''. The ''Periplus'' mentions it as ''Aberia'' with the coastal district Syrastrene (modern-da ...

country of Abhira tribe was in southern Sindh. The Kushan Empire was defeated in the mid-3rd century AD by the Sassanid Empire of Persia, who installed vassals known as the

Kushanshahs Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (also called Kushanshas, Kushanshahs, KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''or Koshano Shao'' in Bactrian language, Bactrian, or Indo-Sasanians) is a historiographic term used by modern scholars to refer to a branch of the Sasanian Persians ...

in these far eastern territories. These rulers were defeated by the Kidarites in the late fourth century. It then came under the

Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ...

after dealing with the Kidarites. By the late fifth century, attacks by Hephthalite tribes known as the Indo-Hephthalites or ''Hunas'' (

Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...

) broke through the Gupta Empire's northwestern borders and overran much of northwestern India. Afterwards, Sindh came under the rule of Emperor

Harshavardhan Harshavardhana (IAST Harṣa-vardhana; c. 590–647 CE) was a Pushyabhuti emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyava ...

, then the Rai Dynasty around 478. The Rais were overthrown by Chachar of Aror, Alor around 632. The Brahman dynasty ruled a vast territory that stretched from Multan in the north to the Rann of Kutch, Alor was their capital.

Arrival of Islam

The connection between the Sindh and Islam was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the Rashidun Caliphate. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year AD 649, was an early partisan of Ali, Ali ibn Abu Talib.MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism and some even participated in the Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali. Under the Umayyads (661 – 750 AD), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees. Muhammad Ali Jinnah claimed that the Pakistan movement started when the first Muslim put his foot on the soil of Sindh, which he labelled the "Gateway of Islam" in India. In 712, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley, bringing South Asian societies into contact with Islam. Raja Dahir, Raja Dahir Sen was a Hindu king that ruled over a Buddhism, Buddhist majority and that Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist Rai Dynasty,Nicholas F. Gier, ''FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES'', presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May 200

Retrieved 11 December 2006. a view questioned by those who note the diffuse and blurred nature of Hindu and Buddhist practices in the region, especially that of the royalty to be patrons of both and those who believe that Chach may have been a Buddhist. The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with the Hindu Jat people, Jats and other regional governors. In 711 AD, Muhammad bin Qasim led an Umayyad force of 20,000 cavalry and 5 catapults. Muhammad bin Qasim defeated the Raja Dahir and captured the cities of Aror, Alor, Multan and Debal. Sindh became the easternmost State of the

and was referred to as "Sind" on Arab maps, with lands further east known as "Hind". Muhammad bin Qasim built the city of Mansura, Sindh, Mansura as his capital; the city then produced famous historical figures such as Abu Mashar Sindhi, Abu Ata al-Sindhi, Abu Raja Sindhi. At the port city of Debal, most of the Bawarij embraced Islam and became known as Sindhi Sailors, who were renowned for their navigation, geography and languages. After Bin Qasim left, the Arab Caliphate ruled Sindh through the Arab Sind, Governors. By the year 750, Debal (modern

) was second only to Basra; Sindhi sailors from the port city of Debal voyaged to Basra, Bushehr, Musqat, Aden, Kilwa Kisiwani, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Sofala, Chera Dynasty, Malabar, Sri Lanka and Java (where Sindhi merchants were known as the Santri). During the Anarchy at Samarra, Decline of the Abbasid Caliphate in 860s, the Habbari dynasty became semi-independent and was eliminated and Mansura was invaded by Mahmud of Ghazni, Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi. Sindh then again became an easternmost client State of the Later Abbasid Caliphs ruled by the Soomro Dynasty until the siege of Baghdad (1258). Mansura was the first capital of the Soomra Dynasty and the last of the Habbari dynasty. Muslim geographers, historians and travelers such as al-Masudi, Ibn Hawqal, Istakhri, Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi, al-Tabari, Baladhuri, Nizami Ganjavi, Nizami, al-Biruni, Saadi Shirazi, Ibn Battutah and Katip Çelebi wrote about or visited the region, sometimes using the name "Sindh" for the entire area from the

to the Hindu Kush.

Soomra dynasty period

When Sindh was under the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Arab Habbari dynasty was in control. The Umayyads appointed Habbari dynasty, Aziz al Habbari as the governor of Sindh. Habbaris ruled Sindh until Mahmud of Ghazni, Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated the Habbaris in 1024. Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi viewed the Abbasid Caliphate to be the caliphs thus he removed the remaining influence of the

in the region and Sindh fell to Abbasid control following the defeat of the Habbaris. The Abbasid Caliphate then appointed Khafif, Al Khafif from Samarra; 'Soomro' means 'of Samarra' in Sindhi. The new governor of Sindh was to create a better, stronger and stable government. Once he became the governor, he allotted several key positions to his family and friends; thus Al-Khafif or Sardar Khafif Soomro formed the Soomro Dynasty in Sindh; and became its first ruler. Until the siege of Baghdad (1258), the Soomro dynasty was the Abbasid Caliphate's functionary in Sindh, but after that it became independent. When the Soomro dynasty lost ties with the Abbasid Caliphate after the siege of Baghdad, the Soomra ruler Dodo-I established their rule from the shores of the

to the Punjab region, Punjab in the north and in the east to

and in the west to Pakistani

. The Soomros were one of the first indigenous Muslim dynasties in Sindh of Parmar Rajput origin. They were the first Muslims to translate the Quran into the Sindhi language. The Soomros created a chivalrous culture in Sindh, which eventually facilitated their rule centred at Mansura, Sindh, Mansura. It was later abandoned due to changes in the course of the Puran River; they ruled for the next 95 years until 1351. During this period, Kutch was ruled by the Samma Dynasty, who enjoyed good relations with the Soomras in Sindh. Since the Soomro Dynasty lost its support from the Abbasid Caliphate, the Sultans of Delhi Sultanate, Delhi wanted a piece of Sindh. The Soomros successfully defended their kingdom for about 36 years, but their dynasties soon fell to the might of the Sultanate of Delhi's massive armies such as the Tughluks and the Khalji dynasty, Khaljis.

Samma dynasty period

In 1339 Jam Unar founded a Sindhi Muslim Rajput Samma Dynasty and challenged the Delhi Sultanate, Sultans of Delhi. He used the title of the ''Sultan of Sindh''. The Samma tribe reached its peak during the reign of Jam Nizamuddin II (also known by the nickname Jám Nindó). During his reign from 1461 to 1509, Nindó greatly expanded the new capital of Thatta and its Makli hills, which replaced Debal. He patronized Sindhi art, architecture and culture. The Samma had left behind a popular legacy especially in architecture, music and art. Important court figures included the poet Kazi Kadal, Sardar Darya Khan, Moltus Khan, Makhdoom Bilawal and the theologian Kazi Kaadan. However, Thatta was a port city; unlike garrison towns, it could not mobilize large armies against the Arghun and Tarkhan Mongol invaders, who killed many regional Sindhi Mirs and Amirs loyal to the Samma. Some parts of Sindh still remained under the Sultans of Delhi and the ruthless Arghuns and the Tarkhans sacked Thatta during the rule of Jam Ferozudin.

Migration of Baloch

According to Dr. Akhtar Baloch, Professor at University of Karachi, and Nadeem Wagan, General Manager at HANDS, the Baloch people, Balochi migrated from Balochistan region, Balochistan during the Little Ice Age and settled in Sindh and

. The Little Ice Age is conventionally defined as a period extending from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, (noted in Grove 2004:4). or alternatively, from about 1300Miller ''et al''. 2012. "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks" ''Geophysical Research Letters'' 39, 31 January
abstract (formerly on AGU website)
(accessed via wayback machine 11 July 2015); se
press release on AGU website
(accessed 11 July 2015). to about 1850.Grove, J.M., ''Little Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern,'' Routledge, London (2 volumes) 2004.Matthews, J.A. and Briffa, K.R.
"The 'Little Ice Age': re-evaluation of an evolving concept"
''Geogr. Ann., 87,'' A (1), pp. 17–36 (2005). Retrieved 17 July 2015. According to Professor Baloch, the climate of Balochistan was very cold during this epoch and the region was uninhabitable during the winters so the Baloch people emigrated in waves to Sindh, Pakistan, Sindh and Punjab.

Mughal era

In the year 1524, the few remaining Sindhi Amirs welcomed the Mughal Empire and Babur dispatched his forces to rally the Arghun dynasty, Arghuns and the Tarkhan dynasty, Tarkhans, branches of a Turkic dynasty. In the coming centuries, Sindh became a region loyal to the Mughals, a network of forts manned by cavalry and musketeers further extended Mughal power in Sindh. In 1540 a mutiny by Sher Shah Suri forced the Mughal Emperor Humayun to withdraw to Sindh, where he joined the Sindhi Emir Hussein Umrani. In 1541 Humayun married Hamida Banu Begum, who gave birth to the infant Akbar at Umarkot in the year 1542. During the reign of Akbar the Great, Sindh produced scholars and others such as Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi, Tahir Muhammad Thattvi and Mir Ali Sir Thattvi and the Mughal chronicler Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak and his brother the poet Faizi was a descendant of a Sindhi Shaikh family from Rel, Siwistan in Sindh. Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak was the author of ''Akbarnama'' (an official biographical account of Akbar) and the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' (a detailed document recording the administration of the Mughal Empire). Shah Jahan carved a subah (imperial province), covering Sindh, called Thatta after its capital, out of Multan, further bordering on the Ajmer and Gujarat subahs as well as the rival Persian Safavid empire. During the Kalhora period, Sindhi literature began to flourish and historical figures such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Hazrat Khawaja Muhammad Zaman Luari Sharif, Sulatn-al-Aoliya Muhammad Zaman and Sachal Sarmast became prominent throughout the land. In 1603 Shah Jahan visited the State of Sindh; at Thatta, he was generously welcomed by the locals after the death of his father Jahangir. Shah Jahan ordered the construction of the Shahjahan Mosque, which was completed during the early years of his rule under the supervision of Mirza Ghazi Beg. During his reign, in 1659 in the Mughal Empire, Muhammad Salih Tahtawi of Thatta created a Seam (metallurgy), seamless celestial globe with Arabic and Persian inscriptions using a lost-wax casting, wax casting method. Sindh was home to several wealthy merchant-rulers such as Mir Bejar of Sindh, whose great wealth had attracted the close ties with the Sultan bin Ahmad of Oman.

Kalhora Nawabs dynasty

In the year 1701, the Kalhora Dynasty, Kalhora Nawabs were authorized in a firman by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to administer Subah (province), subah Sindh. From 1752 to 1762, Maratha Empire, Marathas collected Chauth or tributes from Sindh, and was administered by 10,000 marathas Maratha power was decimated in the entire region after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. In 1762, Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro brought stability in Sindh, he reorganized and killed all the Marathas and their prominent vassal the ''Rao of Kuch'' in the

with the help of Durrani empire. However the Marathas briefly again invaded Sindh in 1772.

Sikh empire

After the Sikhs annexed Multan, the Kalhora Dynasty supported counterattacks against the Sikhs and defined their borders. In 1783 a firman was issued which designated Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur as the new ''Nawab of Sindh'', and mediated peace particularly after the Battle of Halani and the defeat of the ruling Kalhora by the Talpur Baloch tribes.

Talpurs

The Talpur dynasty was established by members of the Talpur tribe. The Talpur tribes migrated from Dera Ghazi Khan in Punjab to Sindh on the invitation of Kalhora to help them organize unruly Baloch tribes living in Sindh. Talpurs, who learned the Sindhi language, settled in northern Sindh. Very soon they united all the Baloch tribes of Sindh and formed a confederacy against the Kalhora Dynasty. Four branches of the dynasty were established following the defeat of the Kalhora dynasty at the Battle of Halani in 1743: one ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad, another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur, a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas, and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan. The Talpurs were ethnically Baloch people, Baloch, and Shia Islam, Shia by faith. They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the Presidency armies, forces of the East India Company at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubba, Dubbo. The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during the period colonial rule as the Khairpur (princely state), princely state of Khairpur, whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated in the West Pakistan in 1955.

Modern period (1800–present)

Colonial period

In 1802, when Talpur dynasty, Mir Ghulam Ali Khan Talpur succeeded as the Talpur Nawab, internal tensions broke out in the state. As a result, the following year the Maratha Empire declared war on Sindh and Berar Subah, during which Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, Arthur Wellesley took a leading role causing much early suspicion between the Emirs of Sindh and the Company rule in India, East India Company administration. The East India Company made its first contacts in the Sindhi port city of Thatta, which according to a report was:

"a city as large as London containing 50,000 houses which were made of stone and mortar with large verandahs some three or four stories high ... the city has 3,000 looms ... the textiles of Sindh were the flower of the whole produce of the East, the international commerce of Sindh gave it a place among that of Nations, Thatta has 400 schools and 4,000 Dhows at its docks, the city is guarded by well armed Sepoys".

Bengal Presidency forces under General Charles James Napier arrived in Sindh in the mid-19th century and captured Sindh in February 1843. The Baloch coalition led by Talpur under Talpur dynasty, Mir Nasir Khan Talpur was defeated at the Battle of Miani during which 5,000 Talpur Baloch were killed in action. Shortly afterwards, Hoshu Sheedi commanded another army at the Battle of Dubba, Battle of Dubbo, where 5,000 Baloch were also killed in action. The first Aga Khan I, Agha Khan, who was escaping persecution in Persia and looking for an ally, helped the East India Company in their capture of Sindh. As a result, he was granted a lifetime pension. A British journal by Thomas Postans mentions the Sindhi Amirs as Prisoner of war, prisoners of war: "The Amirs as being the prisoners of 'Her Majesty'... they are maintained in strict seclusion; they are described as Broken-Hearted and Miserable men, maintaining much of the dignity of fallen greatness, and without any querulous or angry complaining at this unlivable source of sorrow, refusing to be comforted". Within weeks, Charles Napier and his forces occupied Sindh. After 1853, the Company administration divided Sindh into districts and later made it part of the Bombay Presidency. In the year 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned ''Narayan Jagannath Vaidya'' to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi, with the ''Khudabadi script''. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which twelve separate periods of martial law were imposed by the colonial government. During the period of Company rule in India, Company rule,the city saw the rise of nationalist leaders such as Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi, who pioneered the Sindhi Muslim Hurs, Hur Movement. He was hanged on 20March 1943 in Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad, Sindh. His burial place is unknown. During the colonial period, railways, printing presses and bridges were introduced in the province. Writers like Mirza Kalich Beg compiled and traced the literary history of Sindh. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook,Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, ''South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies'', 39:4, 775, the mostly Muslim peasantry was oppressed by the Hindu moneylending class and also by the landed Muslim elite. Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus.Ansari, p. 77. By 1936 Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency. Elections in 1937 resulted in local Sindhi Muslim parties winning the bulk of seats. By the mid-1940s the Muslim League (Pakistan), Muslim League gained a foothold in the province and after winning over the support of local Sufi ''pirs'', it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan.

Modern period

Prior to its struggle for Pakistan during colonial period, in 1947 Sindh joined Pakistan after Muslim League's major 1945 Indian general election, victory against Indian National Congress at first it was proposed that the eastern half of Sindh (Tharparkar Region or simply Thar) was to be carved out from Sindh and be given to India due to its majority Hindu population, but that plan was never made official and Sindh as a whole was acceded to Pakistan. When Sindh joined Pakistan in 1947 it comprised three polities: Karachi (Then Federal Capital of Pakistan), Sind Province (1936–1955), Sind Province (Inherited from British India) and Khairpur (Princely State), in 1955 when One Unit Policy was implemented all of these 3 polities merged to form West Pakistan however in 1970 when One Unit Policy was abolished a single, united province of Sindh came into being with Karachi as its capital

Population

Demographics

Sindh has the second highest List of Pakistani Districts by Human Development Index, Human Development Index out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628. The 2017 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 47.9 million. The major ethnic group of the province is the Sindhis, but there is also a significant presence of other groups. Baloch of Sindh, Sindhis of Baloch origin make up about 30% of the total Sindhi population (although they speak Sindhi or Saraiki as their native tongue), while Urdu language, Urdu-speaking Muhajirs (Pakistan), Muhajirs make up over 19% of the total population of the province, while Punjabi people, Punjabi are 10% and Pashtun people, Pashtuns represent 7%. In August 1947, before the partition of India, the total population of Sindh was 3,887,070 out of which 2,832,000 (around 73%) were Muslims, 1,015,000 (around 26%) were Hindus and the remaining were Sikhs and Jains.

Religion

Shrine Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Sehwan Shareef, Sindh, Pakistan

Islam in Sindh has a long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 CE. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up over 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as the Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend which highlights the strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried on Makli Hill near Thatta. The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the 16th century two Sufi tareeqat (orders) – Qadria and Naqshbandia – were introduced in Sindh. Sufism continues to play an important role in the daily lives of Sindhis. Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage of Hinduism in Pakistan, Hindu overall, which accounts 8.7% of the population, roughly around 4.2 million people, and 13.3% of the province's rural population as per 2017 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, scheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas), and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under the main Hindu category. Although, Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of the region's population. Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. The Ramapir Temple Tando Allahyar, Shri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh. Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have a separate law for governing Hindu marriage laws in Pakistan, Hindu marriages. There are approximately 10,000 Sikhs in Sindh.

Languages

According to the 2017 census, the most widely spoken language in the province is Sindhi language, Sindhi, the first language of % of the population. It is followed by Urdu (%), Pashto (%), Punjabi language, Punjabi (%), Saraiki language, Saraiki (%), Balochi language, Balochi (2%) and Hindko (). Other minority languages include Kutchi language, Kutchi, Gujarati language, Gujarati, Aer language, Aer, Bagri language, Bagri, Bhaya language, Bhaya, Brahui language, Brahui, Dhatki language, Dhatki, Ghera language, Ghera, Goaria language, Goaria, Gurgula language, Gurgula, Jadgali language, Jadgali, Jandavra language, Jandavra, Jogi language, Jogi, Kabutra language, Kabutra, Kachi Koli, Parkari Koli language, Parkari Koli, Wadiyari Koli, Loarki language, Loarki, Marwari language, Marwari, Sansi language, Sansi, and Vaghri language, Vaghri. Karachi city is Pakistan's most multiethnic city. Urdu-speakers form a plurality, while Pashtos are the second-largest group. Sindhis themselves are 8.1% of the population in Karachi, a number that has increased due to migration of rural Sindhis to the city for work.

Geography and nature

Sindh is in the western corner of South Asia, bordering the Iranian plateau in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about from north to south and (extreme) or (average) from east to west, with an area of of Pakistani territory. Sindh is bounded by the

to the east, the

to the west and the

and Rann of Kutch to the south. In the centre is a fertile plain along the Indus River. Sindhri Mango

Sindh is divided into three main geographical regions: ''Siro'' ("upper country"), aka Upper Sindh, which is above Sehwan; ''Vicholo'' ("middle country"), or Middle Sindh, from Sehwan to Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad; and ''Lāṟu'' ("sloping, descending country"), or Lower Sindh, mostly consisting of the Indus Delta below Hyderabad.

Flora

The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, ''Acacia Rupestris'' (kher), and ''Tecomella undulata'' (Rohida, lohirro) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the ''Acacia nilotica'' (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The ''Azadirachta indica'' (neem) (nim), ''Zizyphys vulgaris'' (bir) (ber), ''Tamarix orientalis'' (jujuba lai) and ''Capparis aphylla'' (kirir) are among the more common trees. Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of ''Avicennia tomentosa'' (timmer) and ''Ceriops tagal, Ceriops candolleana'' (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in the lower Sindh region.

Fauna

Among the wild animals, the Sindh ibex (sareh), blackbuck, wild sheep (Urial or gadh) and Asian black bear, wild bear are found in the western rocky range. The leopard is now rare and the Asiatic cheetah extinct. The Fishing cat, Pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing. Chinkara, Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do the Striped hyena (charakh), jackal, fox, porcupine, mongoose, common gray mongoose and hedgehog. The Sindhi phekari, red lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. There are bats, lizards and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper) and the mysterious Sindh krait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck the victim's breath in his sleep. Some unusual sightings of Asian cheetah occurred in 2003 near the

border in

. The rare houbara bustard find Sindh's warm climate suitable to rest and mate. Unfortunately, it is hunted by locals and foreigners. Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus, eastern Nara channel and Karachi backwater. Besides a large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale and skates frequent the seas along the Sindh coast. The Pallo (Sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn. The Indus river dolphin is among the most endangered species in Pakistan and is found in the part of the Indus river in northern Sindh. Indian hog deer, Hog deer and Asian black bear, wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. Although Sindh has a semi arid climate, through its coastal and riverine forests, its huge fresh water lakes and mountains and deserts, Sindh supports a large amount of varied wildlife. Due to the semi-arid climate of Sindh the left out forests support an average population of jackals and snakes. The national parks established by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with many organizations such as World Wide Fund for Nature and Sindh Wildlife Department support a huge variety of animals and birds. The Kirthar National Park in the Kirthar range spreads over more than 3000 km² of desert, stunted tree forests and a lake. The KNP supports Sindh ibex, wild sheep (urial) and Asian black bear, black bear along with the rare leopard. There are also occasional sightings of The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat. There is a project to introduce tigers and Asian elephants too in KNP near the huge Hub Dam Lake. Between July and November when the monsoon winds blow onshore from the ocean, giant olive ridley turtles lay their eggs along the seaward side. The turtles are protected species. After the mothers lay and leave them buried under the sands the SWD and WWF officials take the eggs and protect them until they are hatched to keep them from predators.

Climate

Sindh lies in a tropical to subtropical region; it is hot in the summer and mild to warm in winter. Temperatures frequently rise above between May and August, and the minimum average temperature of occurs during December and January in the northern and higher elevated regions. The annual rainfall averages about seven inches, falling mainly during July and August. The southwest monsoon wind begins in mid-February and continues until the end of September, whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January. Sindh lies between the two monsoons—the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon, deflected towards it by the Himalayas, Himalayan mountains—and escapes the influence of both. The region's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice a year, caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season. Sindh is divided into three climatic regions: Siro (the upper region, centred on Jacobabad), Wicholo (the middle region, centred on Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad), and Lar (the lower region, centred on

). The thermal equator passes through upper Sindh, where the air is generally very dry. Central Sindh's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh. Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during the summer. Central Sindh's maximum temperature typically reaches . Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter, with lower rainfall than Central Sindh. Lower Sindh's maximum temperature reaches about . In the Kirthar range at and higher at Gorakh Hill and other peaks in Dadu District, temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall is received in the winters.

Major cities

Government

Sindh province

The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is a unicameral and consists of 168 seats, of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is

. The Government of Sindh, provincial government is led by Chief Minister of Sindh, Chief Minister who is directly elected by the Elections in Pakistan, popular and landslide votes; the Governor of Sindh, Governor serves as a ceremonial representative nominated and appointed by the President of Pakistan. The administrative boss of the province who is in charge of the bureaucracy is the Chief Secretary Sindh, who is appointed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Most of the influential Sindhi tribes in the province are involved in political families of Pakistan, Pakistan's politics. In addition, Sindh's politics leans towards the Left-wing politics, left-wing and its political culture serves as a dominant place for the Socialism in Pakistan, left-wing spectrum in the country. The province's trend towards the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and away from the Pakistan Muslim League (N) can be seen in nationwide Elections in Pakistan, general elections, in which Sindh is a stronghold of the PPP. The PML(N) has a limited support due to its Conservatism in Pakistan, centre-right agenda. In metropolitan cities such as

and Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad, the Muttahida Qaumi Movement – Pakistan, MQM (another party of the left with the support of Indian Muslims in Pakistan, ''Muhajirs'') has a considerable vote bank and support. Minor leftist parties such as the Awami Tehreek, People's Movement also found support in rural areas of the province.

Divisions

In 2008, after the public elections, the new government decided to restore the structure of Divisions of all provinces. In Sindh after the lapse of the Local Governments Bodies term in 2010 the Divisional Commissioners system was to be restored. In July 2011, following excessive July 2011 Karachi target killings, violence in the city of Karachi and after the political split between the ruling PPP and the majority party in Sindh, the MQM and after the resignation of the MQM Governor of Sindh, PPP and the Government of Sindh decided to restore the commissionerate system in the province. As a consequence, the five divisions of Sindh were restored – namely Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, Mirpurkhas and Larkana with their respective districts. Subsequently, two new divisions have been added in Sindh, Banbore and Nawab Shah/Shaheed Benazirabad division. Karachi district has been de-merged into its five original constituent districts: Karachi East District, Karachi East, Karachi West District, Karachi West, Karachi Central District, Karachi Central, Karachi South District, Karachi South and Malir District, Malir. Recently Korangi has been upgraded to the status of the sixth district of Karachi. These six districts form the Karachi Division now. In 2020, the Kemari District was created after splitting Karachi West District. Currently the Sindh government is planning to divide the Tharparkar district into Tharparkar and Chhachro district.

Districts

Lower-level subdivisions

In Sindh, talukas are equivalent to the tehsils used elsewhere in the country, supervisory tapas correspond with the kanungo circles used elsewhere, tapas correspond with the patwar circles used in other provinces, and dehs are equivalent to the mouzas used elsewhere.

Economy

PK Karachi asv2020-02 img22 Chundrigar Road

PK Hyderabad asv2020-02 img15 Navalrai Market tower

Sukkur Skyline along the shores of the River Indus

Education

The following is a chart of the education market of Sindh estimated by the government in 1998: Major public and private educational institutes in Sindh include: * Adamjee Government Science College * Aga Khan University * APIIT * Applied Economics Research Centre * Bahria University * Baqai Medical University * Chandka Medical College, Chandka Medical College Larkana * Cadet College Petaro * College of Digital Sciences * College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan * COMMECS Institute of Business and Emerging Sciences * D. J. Science College * Dawood University of Engineering & Technology * Defence Authority Degree College for Men * Dow International Medical College * Dow University of Health Sciences * Fatima Jinnah Dental College * Federal Urdu University * GBELS Dourai Mahar Taluka Daur Distt: Shaheed Benazirabad * Ghulam Muhammad Mahar Medical College Sukkur * Government College for Men Nazimabad * Government College Hyderabad * Government College of Commerce & Economics * Government College of Technology, Karachi * Government Degree College Matiari * Government High School Ranipur * Government Islamia Science College Sukkur * Government Muslim Science College Hyderabad * Government National College (Karachi) * Greenwich University (Karachi) * Hamdard University * Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry * Imperial Science College Nawabshah * Indus Valley Institute of Art and Architecture * Institute of Business Administration, Karachi * Institute of Business Administration, Sukkar * Institute of Business Management * Institute of Industrial Electronics Engineering * Institute of Sindhology * Iqra University * Islamia Science College (Karachi) * Isra University Hyderabad * Jinnah Medical & Dental College * Jinnah Polytechnic Institute * Jinnah Post Graduate Medical Centre * Jinnah University for Women * KANUPP Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering * Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology * Karachi School of Business and Leadership * Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences * Mehran University of Engineering and Technology * Mohammad Ali Jinnah University * National Academy of Performing Arts * National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences * National University of Modern Languages * National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan, National University of Sciences and Technology * NED University of Engineering and Technology * Ojha Institute of Chest Diseases * PAF Institute of Aviation Technology * TES Public School, Daur * Pakistan Navy Engineering College * Pakistan Shipowners' College * Pakistan Steel Cadet College * Peoples Medical College for Girls Nawabshah * PIA Training Centre Karachi * Provincial Institute of Teachers Education Nawabshah * Public School Hyderabad * Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology, Nawabshah * Rana Liaquat Ali Khan Government College of Home Economics * Saint Patrick's College, Karachi * Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai University * Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Medical College * Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology * Sindh Agriculture University * Sindh Medical College * Superior College of Science Hyderabad * Sindh Muslim Law College * Sir Syed Government Girls College * Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology * St. Joseph's College (Karachi), St. Joseph's College * Sukkur Institute of Science & Technology * Textile Institute of Pakistan * University of Karachi * University of Sindh * Usman Institute of Technology * Ziauddin Medical University

Culture

The rich culture, art and architectural landscape of Sindh have fascinated historians. The culture, folktales, art and music of Sindh form a mosaic of human history.

Cultural heritage

Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro-108221

Sindh has a rich heritage of traditional handicraft that has evolved over the centuries. Perhaps the most professed exposition of Sindhi culture is in the handicrafts of Haala, Hala, a town some 30 kilometres from Hyderabad, Sindh, Hyderabad. Hala's artisans manufacture high-quality and impressively priced wooden handicrafts, textiles, paintings, handmade paper products, and blue pottery. Lacquered wood works known as Jandi, painting on wood, tiles, and pottery known as Kashi, hand weaved textiles including ''khadi'', ''susi'', and ''ajraks'' are synonymous with Sindhi culture preserved in Hala's handicraft. The work of Sindhi artisans was sold in ancient markets of Damascus, Baghdad, Basra, Istanbul, Cairo and Samarkand. Referring to the lacquer work on wood locally known as Jandi, T. Posten (an English traveller who visited Sindh in the early 19th century) asserted that the articles of Hala could be compared with exquisite specimens of China. Technological improvements such as the spinning wheel (Charkha (spinning wheel), charkha) and treadle (pai-chah) in the weaver's loom were gradually introduced and the processes of designing, dyeing and printing by block were refined. The refined, lightweight, colourful, washable fabrics from Hala became a luxury for people used to the woollens and linens of the age. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the World Wildlife Fund, Pakistan, play an important role to promote the culture of Sindh. They provide training to women artisans in Sindh so they get a source of income. They promote their products under the name of "Crafts Forever". Many women in rural Sindh are skilled in the production of caps. Sindhi caps are manufactured commercially on a small scale at New Saeedabad and Hala New. Sindhi people began celebrating Sindhi Topi Day on 6 December 2009, to preserve the historical culture of Sindh by wearing Ajrak and Sindhi topi. House in the Thar

Tourism

File:Sukkur bridge hdr.jpg, Sukkur Bridge File:Gorakh Hill Morning.jpg, Gorakh Hill, Gorakh Hill Station File:FaizMahal.jpg, Faiz Mahal, Khairpur, Pakistan, Khairpur File:Rani Kort Wall & Forte View.jpg, Ranikot Fort, one of the largest forts in the world File:PK Chaukhandi Necropolis near Karachi asv2020-02 img09.jpg, Chaukhandi tombs File:Bhodesar temple, Nagarparkar.JPG, Remains of 9th century Jainism, Jain Nagarparkar Jain Temples, temple in Bhodesar near Nagarparkar. File:Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg, Excavated ruins of

Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Kot Diji The ancient site at Kot Diji ( sd, ڪوٽ ڏیجي; ur, کوٹ ڈیجی) was the forerunner of the Indus Civilization. The occupation of this site is attested already at 3300 BCE. The remains consist of two parts; the citadel area on high ground ...

File:Bakirwarolake.jpg, Bakri Waro Lake, Khairpur File:PK Karachi asv2020-02 img32 National Museum.jpg, National Museum of Pakistan File:PK Kirthar NP asv2020-02 img18.jpg, Kirthar National Park File:Karoonjhar Mountains.jpg, alt=Karoonjhar Mountains, Tharparkar, Karoonjhar Mountains, Tharparkar File:Shahjahan mosque.jpg, Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta File:Mausoleum of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai 05.jpg, Tomb of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai File:Keenjhar Lake view 1.jpg, Keenjhar Lake File:Shrine Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Sehwan Shareed, Pakistan.jpg, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar

References

111 Asad Umar takes charge as Chief Secretary on 5 August 2018.

Bibliography

* Ansari, Sarah F.D. (1992) ''Sufi saints and state power: the pirs of Sind, 1843–1947'', No. 50. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. . * *

External links

Sindh Transport Department official website

Government of Sindh
* Guide o
Sindh

* {{Authority control Sindh, Provinces of Pakistan States and territories established in 1970 1970 establishments in Pakistan Sindhi-speaking countries and territories Populated places established in the 7th millennium BC 7th-millennium BC establishments