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Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major
deity
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...
in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
. He is worshipped as the eighth
avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...
of
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
and also as the
Supreme god
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
in his own right.
He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love;
and is one of the most popular and widely revered among Indian divinities. Krishna's birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on
Krishna Janmashtami according to the
lunisolar
A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures, combining lunar calendars and solar calendars. The date of Lunisolar calendars therefore indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar year, that is the position of the Sun in the E ...
Hindu calendar
The Hindu calendar, Panchanga () or Panjika is one of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with further regional variations for social and Hindu religious purposes. They adopt a s ...
, which falls in late August or early September of the
Gregorian calendar
The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It was introduced in October 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years dif ...
.
The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally titled as ''Krishna Leela''. He is a central character in the ''
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
'', the ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'', the ''
Brahma Vaivarta Purana
The ''Brahmavaivarta Purana'' ( sa, ब्रह्मवैवर्त पुराण; ) is a voluminous Sanskrit text and a major Purana (''Maha-purana'') of Hinduism. It is an important Vaishnavism text. This Purana majorly centers ar ...
,'' and the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'', and is mentioned in many
Hindu philosophical,
theological
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
, and
mythological texts.
They portray him in various perspectives: as a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the universal supreme being.
[ Quote: "Krsna's various appearances as a divine hero, alluring god child, cosmic prankster, perfect lover, and universal supreme being (...)".] His iconography reflects these legends, and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a
flute
The flute is a family of classical music instrument in the woodwind group. Like all woodwinds, flutes are aerophones, meaning they make sound by vibrating a column of air. However, unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute is a reedless ...
, a young boy with
Radha
Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also de ...
or surrounded by female devotees; or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to
Arjuna
Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...
.
The name and synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1stmillennium
BCE
Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...
literature and cults.
In some sub-traditions, Krishna is worshipped as ''
Svayam Bhagavan'' (the Supreme God), and it is sometimes known as
Krishnaism
Krishnaism (IAST: ''Kṛṣṇaism'') is a large group of independent Hinduism, Hindu traditions—sampradayas related to Vaishnavism—that center on the devotion to Krishna as ''Svayam Bhagavan'', ''Ishvara'', ''Para Brahman'', the source of ...
. These sub-traditions arose in the context of the medieval era
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
.
[Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), ''The Bhagavata Purana'', Columbia University Press, , pp. 185–200] Krishna-related literature has inspired numerous performance arts such as
Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of S ...
,
Kathakali
Kathakali ( ml, കഥകളി) is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up and costumes of the traditional male actor-dancers. It is native to the M ...
,
Kuchipudi
Kuchipudi () ( Telugu: ) is one of the eight major Indian classical dances. It originates from a village named Kuchipudi in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.
Kuchipudi is a dance-drama performance, with its roots in the ancient Hindu Sa ...
,
Odissi
Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India.[Manipuri dance
, image =
, alt =
, caption = An illustration of the ''Manipuri Raas Leela'' dance, being depicted in a stamp from Armenia; transliterations of "Jagoi Raas" and "Manipuri Raas Leela", the terms in Meitei language (offi ...]
.
[ML Varadpande (1987), ''History of Indian Theatre'', Vol 1, Abhinav, , pp. 98–99] He is a pan-Hindu god, but is particularly revered in some locations, such as
Vrindavan
Vrindavan (; ), also spelt Vrindaban and Brindaban, is a historical city in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located in the Braj Bhoomi region and holds religious importance in Hinduism as Krishna spent most of his childho ...
in
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
,
Dwarka
Dwarka () is a city and a municipality of Devbhumi Dwarka district in the state of Gujarat in Western India. It is located on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula on the right bank of the Gomti river at the mouth of the Gulf of Kut ...
and
Junagadh
Junagadh () is the headquarters of Junagadh district in the Indian state of Gujarat. Located at the foot of the Girnar hills, southwest of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar (the state capital), it is the seventh largest city in the state.
Literally t ...
in
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
; the
Jagannath
Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...
a aspect in
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
,
Mayapur
Mayapur () is a neighbourhood of Bamanpukur, in the Nabadwip CD block in the Krishnanagar Sadar subdivision of the Nadia district in the state of West Bengal, India. It is situated adjacent to Nabadwip, at the confluence of two rivers, where ...
in
West Bengal
West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the fourt ...
; in the form of
Vithoba
Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna. Vithoba is ...
in
Pandharpur,
Maharashtra
Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a states and union territories of India, state in the western India, western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the List of states and union te ...
,
Shrinathji
Shrinathji is a form of Krishna, manifested as a seven-year-old child (''Balak''). The principal shrine of Shrinathji is the Shrinathji Temple in the temple town of Nathdwara, 48 kilometres north-east of Udaipur city in Rajasthan,India. Shrina ...
at
Nathdwara
Nathdwara is a town near Rajsamand city in the Rajsamand district of the state of Rajasthan, India. It is located in the Aravalli hills, on the banks of the Banas River and is 48 kilometres north-east of Udaipur. Shrinathji, is a swarup o ...
in
Rajasthan
Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
,
Udupi
Udupi (alternate spelling Udipi; also known as Odipu) is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. Udupi is situated about north of the educational, commercial and industrial hub of Mangalore and about west of state capital Bangalore by road.
...
Krishna in
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
,
Parthasarathy
Krishna (; Sanskrit: , ' in IAST, pronounced (Classical Sanskrit) and in ''Vedic Sanskrit'' is a Hindu deity worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. In Hinduism, Krishna is recognized as the comple ...
in
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
and in
Aranmula
Aranmula is a temple town in the state of Kerala, India. It is known as the cultural capital of Pathanamthitta district, located at a distance of around 116 km from Trivandrum, the capital of Kerala, it is situated on the banks of the ...
,
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
, and
Guruvayoorappan
Guruvayurappan ( ml, ഗുരുവായൂരപ്പന്, (transliterated guruvāyūrappan)) also often rendered Guruvayoorappan, is a form of Vishnu worshipped mainly in Kerala. He is the presiding deity of the Guruvayur temple, w ...
in
Guruvayoor
Guruvayur () is a municipal temple town in Thrissur District, of Kerala State in India. It is a suburban town of Thrissur city, located from Thrissur towards the north-west. It houses the Guruvayur Shri Krishna Temple. It is located at ...
in
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world and to Africa, largely due to the work of the
International Society for Krishna Consciousness
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known Colloquialism, colloquially as the Hare Krishna movement or Hare Krishnas, is a Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Gaudiya Vaishnava Hinduism, Hindu religious organization. ISKCON was found ...
(ISKCON).
Names and epithets
The name "Krishna" originates from the
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
word ', which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark", "dark blue" or “the all attractive”.
Monier Williams Sanskrit–English Dictionary (2008 revision)
Apte Sanskrit–English Dictionary
The waning moon is called Krishna
Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".
The name is also interpreted sometimes as "all-attractive".
As a name of
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the ''
Vishnu Sahasranama''. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in
idols as black- or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various
other names, epithets, and titles that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are ''Mohan'' "enchanter"; ''
Govinda
Govinda (), also rendered Govind and Gobind, is an epithet of Vishnu which is also used for his avatars such as Krishna. The name appears as the 187th and the 539th name of Vishnu in '' Vishnu Sahasranama''. The name is also popularly addresse ...
'' "chief herdsman", ''
Keev
Keev (Sanskrit: , ) is a name of Krishna from the Hindu tradition. The name appears in the 108 names of Krishna in the Gaudiya Vaishnavism. Keev is named after mother Devaki and father Vasudeva, and is generally used for the child form of Krishna ...
'' "prankster", and ''
Gopala
Gopala (Bangla: গোপাল) (ruled c. 750s–770s CE) was the founder of the Pala dynasty of Bihar and Bengal regions of the Indian Subcontinent. The last morpheme of his name ''Pala'' means "protector" and was used as an ending for the name ...
'' "Protector of the 'Go'", which means "soul" or "the cows".
Some names for Krishna hold regional importance; ''
Jagannatha
Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...
'', found in the
Puri
Puri () is a coastal city and a Nagar Palika, municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is als ...
Hindu temple, is a popular incarnation in
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
state and nearby regions of
eastern India
East India is a region of India consisting of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha
and West Bengal and also the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The region roughly corresponds to the historical region of Magadha fr ...
.
Krishna may also be referred to as
Vāsudeva-Krishna, Murlidhar, or Chakradhar. The honorary title "Sri" (also spelled "Shri") is often used before the name of Krishna.
Names in different states of India
Krishna is commonly worshipped as:
# ''Kanhaiyya/
Bankey Bihari/Thakurji'': Uttar Pradesh
# ''
Jagannath
Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...
'': Odisha
# ''
Vithoba
Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna. Vithoba is ...
'': Maharashtra
# ''
Shrinathji
Shrinathji is a form of Krishna, manifested as a seven-year-old child (''Balak''). The principal shrine of Shrinathji is the Shrinathji Temple in the temple town of Nathdwara, 48 kilometres north-east of Udaipur city in Rajasthan,India. Shrina ...
'': Rajasthan
# ''
Guruvayoorappan
Guruvayurappan ( ml, ഗുരുവായൂരപ്പന്, (transliterated guruvāyūrappan)) also often rendered Guruvayoorappan, is a form of Vishnu worshipped mainly in Kerala. He is the presiding deity of the Guruvayur temple, w ...
''/''Kannan'': Kerala
# ''
Dwarakadheesh/Ranchhod'': Gujarat
# ''Parthasarathy/Kannan'': Tamil Nadu
Historical and literary sources
The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several independent deities of ancient India, the earliest to be attested being
Vāsudeva
Vāsudeva ( sa, वासुदेव, ), later incorporated as Vāsudeva-Krishna (, "Krishna, son of Vasudeva"),"While the earliest piece of evidence do not yet use the name Krsna...." in Krishna-Vāsudeva or simply Krishna, was the son of ...
.
Vāsudeva was a hero-god of the tribe of the
Vrishni
The Vrishnis (Brahmi: ''vri-shņi'') were an ancient Vedic Indian clan who were believed to be the descendants of Vrishni. It is believed that Vrishni was the son of Satvata, a descendant of Yadu, the son of Yayati. He had two wives, Gandhari a ...
s, belonging to the
Vrishni heroes
The Vrishni heroes ( IAST: Vṛṣṇi Viras), also referred to as ''Pancha-viras'' ( IAST: Pañca vīras, "Five heroes"), are a group of five legendary, deified heroes who are found in the literature and archaeological sites of ancient India. T ...
, whose worship is attested from the 5th-6th century BCE in the writings of
Pāṇini
, era = ;;6th–5th century BCE
, region = Indian philosophy
, main_interests = Grammar, linguistics
, notable_works = ' (Sanskrit#Classical Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit)
, influenced=
, notable_ideas=Descript ...
, and from the 2nd century BCE in epigraphy with the
Heliodorus pillar
The Heliodorus pillar is a stone column that was erected around 113 BCE in central India in Besnagar (near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh). The pillar was called the ''Garuda-standard'' by Heliodorus, referring to the deity Garuda. The pillar is commonly ...
.
At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the Vrishnis fused with the tribe of the
Yadavas
The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and S ...
, whose own hero-god was named Krishna.
Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in the ''
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
'', and they started to be identified with
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
in the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
''.
Around the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult of
Gopala-Krishna
Gopala Krishna ( sa, गोपालकृष्ण, translit=Gopālakṛṣṇa, lit=cow-protector Krishna) refers to a form of the Hindu deity Krishna, as featured in the Harivamsha and the Puranas. The narratives of Gopala Krishna are set in t ...
, the protector of cattle, was also absorbed into the Krishna tradition.
Early epigraphic sources
Depiction in coinage (2nd century BCE)
![Vasudeva Krishna on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria circa 180 BCE](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Vasudeva_Krishna_on_a_coin_of_Agathocles_of_Bactria_circa_180_BCE.jpg)
Around 180 BCE, the
Indo-Greek
The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent ( ...
king
Agathocles Agathocles ( Greek: ) is a Greek name, the most famous of which is Agathocles of Syracuse, the tyrant of Syracuse. The name is derived from , ''agathos'', i.e. "good" and , ''kleos'', i.e. "glory".
Other personalities named Agathocles:
*Agathocles ...
issued some coinage bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related to
Vaisnava imagery in India.
The deities displayed on the coins appear to be
Saṃkarṣaṇa
Saṃkarṣaṇa (IAST , "The Plougher") later known as Balarama, was a son of Vasudeva Anakadundubhi, king of the Vrishnis in the region of Mathura. He was a leading member of the Vrishni heroes, and may well have been an ancient historical ru ...
-
Balarama
Balarama (Sanskrit: बलराम, IAST: ''Balarāma'') is a Hindu god and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Balad ...
with attributes consisting of the
Gada mace and the
plow
A plough or plow ( US; both ) is a farm tool for loosening or turning the soil before sowing seed or planting. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by oxen and horses, but in modern farms are drawn by tractors. A plough may have a wooden, iron or ...
, and Vāsudeva-Krishna with attributes of the
Shankha
A Shankha ( conch shell) has religious ritual importance in Hinduism. It is the shell of any suitable sea snail which had a hole made for the performer's embouchure.
In Hindu history, the shankha is a sacred emblem of The Hindu preserver god V ...
(conch) and the
Sudarshana Chakra
Sudarshana Chakra (Sanskrit: सुदर्शन चक्र, lit. "disc of auspicious vision", IAST: Sudarśana Chakra) is a spinning, celestial discus with 108 serrated edges, attributed to Vishnu and Krishna in the Hindu scriptures. The Sud ...
wheel.
According to
Bopearachchi, the headdress on top of the deity is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top (
chattra
The ''chhatra'' (from sa, छत्र, meaning "umbrella") "jewelled/precious parasol" is an auspicious symbol in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.
The ''chhatra'' in various traditions
According to Hindu mythology, it is the emblem of Varuna, ...
).
Inscriptions
![Heliodorus pillar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Heliodorus_pillar.jpg)
The
Heliodorus Pillar
The Heliodorus pillar is a stone column that was erected around 113 BCE in central India in Besnagar (near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh). The pillar was called the ''Garuda-standard'' by Heliodorus, referring to the deity Garuda. The pillar is commonly ...
, a stone pillar with a Brahmi script inscription, was discovered by colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar (
Vidisha
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
, central Indian state of
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
). Based on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100BCE and is now known after
Heliodorus
Heliodorus is a Greek name meaning "Gift of the Sun". Several persons named Heliodorus are known to us from ancient times, the best known of which are:
*Heliodorus (minister) a minister of Seleucus IV Philopator c. 175 BC
* Heliodorus of Athen ...
– an
Indo-Greek
The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent ( ...
who served as an ambassador of the Greek king
Antialcidas
Antialcidas Nikephoros ( grc, Ἀντιαλκίδας ὁ Νικηφόρος; epithet means "the Victorious", Brahmi: 𑀅𑀁𑀢𑀮𑀺𑀓𑀺𑀢𑀲 ''Aṃtalikitasa'', in the Heliodorus Pillar) was a king of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, who re ...
to a regional Indian king, Kasiputra
Bhagabhadra
Bhagabhadra ( Brāhmī: 𑀪𑀸𑀕𑀪𑀤𑁆𑀭 , ) was one of the kings of the Indian Shunga dynasty. He ruled in north, central India around from 114 BCE to 83 BCE. Although the capital of the Shungas was at Pataliputra, he was also known ...
.
The Heliodorus pillar inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to "
Vāsudeva
Vāsudeva ( sa, वासुदेव, ), later incorporated as Vāsudeva-Krishna (, "Krishna, son of Vasudeva"),"While the earliest piece of evidence do not yet use the name Krsna...." in Krishna-Vāsudeva or simply Krishna, was the son of ...
", an early deity and another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by "the ''Bhagavata'' Heliodorus" and that it is a "''Garuda'' pillar" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter11.7 of the ''Mahabharata'' stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three virtues: self-
temperance
Temperance may refer to:
Moderation
*Temperance movement, movement to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed
*Temperance (virtue), habitual moderation in the indulgence of a natural appetite or passion
Culture
*Temperance (group), Canadian danc ...
(''damah''), generosity (''cagah'' or ''tyaga''), and vigilance (''apramadah'').
The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, ''
mandapa
A mandapa or mantapa () is a pillared hall or pavilion for public rituals in Indian architecture, especially featured in Hindu temple architecture.
Mandapas are described as "open" or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In temples, ...
s'', and seven additional pillars. The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and the temple are among the earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion and
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
in ancient India.
![Rama Krishna at Chilas](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Rama_Krishna_at_Chilas.jpg)
The
Heliodorus inscription is not isolated evidence. The
Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions
The Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions, sometimes referred simply as the Ghosundi Inscription or the Hathibada Inscription, are among the oldest known Sanskrit inscriptions in the Brahmi script, and dated to the 2nd-1st-century BCE. The Hathibada in ...
, all located in the state of
Rajasthan
Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
and dated by modern methodology to the 1stcenturyBCE, mention Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva, also mention that the structure was built for their worship in association with the supreme deity
Narayana
Narayana (Sanskrit: नारायण, IAST: ''Nārāyaṇa'') is one of the forms and names of Vishnu, who is in yogic slumber under the celestial waters, referring to the masculine principle. He is also known as Purushottama, and is co ...
. These four inscriptions are notable for being some of the oldest-known Sanskrit inscriptions.
A
Mora stone slab found at the Mathura-Vrindavan archaeological site in
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
, held now in the
Mathura Museum
__NOTOC__
Government Museum, Mathura, commonly referred to as Mathura museum, is an archaeological museum in Mathura city of Uttar Pradesh state in India. The museum was founded by then collector of the Mathura district, Sir F. S. Growse in 1 ...
, has a Brahmi inscription. It is dated to the 1stcenturyCE and mentions the five
Vrishni heroes
The Vrishni heroes ( IAST: Vṛṣṇi Viras), also referred to as ''Pancha-viras'' ( IAST: Pañca vīras, "Five heroes"), are a group of five legendary, deified heroes who are found in the literature and archaeological sites of ancient India. T ...
, otherwise known as Saṃkarṣaṇa, Vāsudeva,
Pradyumna
Pradyumna ( sa, प्रद्युम्न) is the eldest son of the Hindu deities Krishna and his chief consort, Rukmini. He is considered to be one of the four vyuha avatars of Vishnu. According to the Bhagavata Purana, Pradyumna was ...
,
Aniruddha
Aniruddha ( sa, अनिरुद्ध ') is a character in Hindu mythology, the son of Pradyumna and Rukmavati, and the grandson of Krishna and Rukmini. He is said to have been very much like his grandfather, to the extent that he is co ...
, and
Samba
Samba (), also known as samba urbano carioca (''urban Carioca samba'') or simply samba carioca (''Carioca samba''), is a Brazilian music genre that originated in the Afro-Brazilian communities of Rio de Janeiro in the early 20th century. Havin ...
.
[ p. 51: The coins of Rajuvula have been recovered from the Sultanpur District...the Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum,]
The inscriptional record for
Vāsudeva
Vāsudeva ( sa, वासुदेव, ), later incorporated as Vāsudeva-Krishna (, "Krishna, son of Vasudeva"),"While the earliest piece of evidence do not yet use the name Krsna...." in Krishna-Vāsudeva or simply Krishna, was the son of ...
starts in the 2nd century BCE with the coinage of Agathocles and the Heliodorus pillar, but the name of Krishna appears rather later in epigraphy. At the
Chilas II archaeological site dated to the first half of the 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan, near the Afghanistan border, are engraved two males, along with many Buddhist images nearby. The larger of the two males held a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an inscription with it in Kharosthi script, which has been deciphered by scholars as ''Rama-Krsna'', and interpreted as an ancient depiction of the two brothers, Balarama and Krishna.
The first known depiction of the life of Krishna himself comes relatively late, with a relief found in
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
, and dated to the 1st-2nd century CE.
This fragment seems to show
Vasudeva
According to Hindu scriptures, Vasudeva (Sanskrit: वसुदेव, IAST: ''Vasudeva''), also called Anakadundubhi, (''anakas'' and ''dundubhis'' both refer to ''drums'', after the musicians who played these instruments at the time of his ...
, Krishna's father, carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the
Yamuna
The Yamuna (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), also spelt Jumna, is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in List of major rivers of India, India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a ...
.
The relief shows at one end a seven-hooded Naga crossing a river, where a ''
makara
''Makara'' ( sa, मकर, translit=Makara) is a legendary sea-creature in Hindu mythology. In Hindu astrology, Makara is equivalent to the Zodiac sign Capricorn.
Makara appears as the vahana (vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga, Narmada, a ...
'' crocodile is thrashing around, and at the other end a person seemingly holding a basket over his head.
Literary sources
Mahabharata
![Krishna advising Pandavas](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Krishna_advising_Pandavas.jpg)
The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic ''
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
'', which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (''Bhishma Parva'') of the epic that constitute the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'' contain the advice of Krishna to
Arjuna
Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...
on the battlefield. The ''
Harivamsa'', a later appendix to the ''Mahabharata,'' contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
Other sources
![Baby thief Krishna (bazaar art, c](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Baby_thief_Krishna_%28bazaar_art%2C_c.1950%27s%29.jpg)
The ''
Chandogya Upanishad
The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''Chāndogyopaniṣad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166-16 ...
'', estimated to have been composed sometime between the 8th and 6thcenturiesBCE, has been another source of speculation regarding Krishna in ancient India. The verse (III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in ''Krishnaya Devakiputraya'' as a student of the sage Ghor' of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified with
Neminatha
Neminatha, also known as Nemi and Arishtanemi, is the twenty-second ''tirthankara'' (ford-maker) in Jainism. Along with Mahavira, Parshvanatha and Rishabhanatha, Neminatha is one of the twenty four ''tirthankaras'' who attract the most devo ...
, the twenty-second ''
tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
'' in
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
, by some scholars. This phrase, which means "To Krishna the son of
Devaki
Devaki (Sanskrit: देवकी, IAST: ''Devakī'') is a character in Hindu literature, most noted for being the mother of the god Krishna. She is one of the seven daughters of Devapa or Devaka, a king of the Yadu dynasty, and has four br ...
", has been mentioned by scholars such as
Max Müller
Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian ...
[Max Müller]
Chandogya Upanishad 3.16–3.17
The Upanishads, PartI, Oxford University Press, pp. 50–53 with footnotes as a potential source of fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in the ''Mahabharata'' and other ancient literature only potential because this verse could have been interpolated into the text,
or the Krishna Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna. These doubts are supported by the fact that the much later age ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutras'', a treatise on Krishna, cites later age compilations such as the ''
Narayana Upanishad
The ''Narayana Upanishad'' ( sa, नारायण उपनिषद्) is one of the minor Upanishads, listed as number 18 in the extended anthology of 108 Upanishads recited by Rama to Hanuman in Hindu literature. It is listed as number 33 i ...
'' but never cites this verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along with
Devaki
Devaki (Sanskrit: देवकी, IAST: ''Devakī'') is a character in Hindu literature, most noted for being the mother of the god Krishna. She is one of the seven daughters of Devapa or Devaka, a king of the Yadu dynasty, and has four br ...
in the ancient Upanishad is unrelated to the later Hindu god of the ''Bhagavad Gita'' fame. For example, Archer states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse cannot be dismissed easily.
Yāska
Yāska was an ancient Indian grammarian and linguist st. 7th–5th century BCE(disputed)">disputed.html" ;"title="st. 7th–5th century BCE(disputed">st. 7th–5th century BCE(disputed) Preceding Pāṇini 's ''Nirukta">st. 7th–4th century BCE(Controv ...
's ''Nirukta'', an etymological dictionary published around the 6thcenturyBCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from the well-known Puranic story about Krishna.
Shatapatha Brahmana and ''Aitareya-Aranyaka'' associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.
In ''Ashṭādhyāyī'', authored by the
ancient
Ancient history is a time period from the History of writing, beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian language, Sumerian c ...
grammarian
Pāṇini
, era = ;;6th–5th century BCE
, region = Indian philosophy
, main_interests = Grammar, linguistics
, notable_works = ' (Sanskrit#Classical Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit)
, influenced=
, notable_ideas=Descript ...
(probably belonged to the 5th or 6thcenturyBCE), ''Vāsudeva'' and ''Arjuna'', as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the same ''
sutra
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
''.
Megasthenes
Megasthenes ( ; grc, Μεγασθένης, c. 350 BCE– c. 290 BCE) was an ancient Greek historian, diplomat and Indian ethnographer and explorer in the Hellenistic period. He described India in his book '' Indica'', which is now lost, but has ...
, a
Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of
Seleucus I
Seleucus I Nicator (; ; grc-gre, Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ , ) was a Macedonian Greek general who was an officer and successor ( ''diadochus'') of Alexander the Great. Seleucus was the founder of the eponymous Seleucid Empire. In the pow ...
to the court of
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (350-295 BCE) was a ruler in Ancient India who expanded a geographically-extensive kingdom based in Magadha and founded the Maurya dynasty. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Maurya kingdom expanded to become an empi ...
towards the end of 4thcenturyBCE, made reference to
Herakles
Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive ...
in his famous work
Indica. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such as
Arrian
Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; la, Lucius Flavius Arrianus; )
was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
''The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best ...
,
Diodorus
Diodorus Siculus, or Diodorus of Sicily ( grc-gre, Διόδωρος ; 1st century BC), was an ancient Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history ''Bibliotheca historica'', in forty books, fifteen of which su ...
, and
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
. According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares. According to
Edwin Bryant, a professor of Indian religions known for his publications on Krishna, "there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the
Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged". The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares of
Jamuna. Later, when
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
launched his campaign in the northwest
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
, his associates recalled that the soldiers of
Porus
Porus or Poros ( grc, Πῶρος ; 326–321 BC) was an ancient Indian king whose territory spanned the region between the Jhelum River (Hydaspes) and Chenab River (Acesines), in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. He is only ment ...
were carrying an image of Herakles.
The Buddhist
Pali canon
The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school.
During th ...
and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454)
polemic
Polemic () is contentious rhetoric intended to support a specific position by forthright claims and to undermine the opposing position. The practice of such argumentation is called ''polemics'', which are seen in arguments on controversial topics ...
ally mention the devotees of Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused version of the Krishna legends. The texts of
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
mention these tales as well, also with many peculiarities and different versions, in their legends about
Tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
s. This inclusion of Krishna-related legends in ancient
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology was existent and important in the religious landscape observed by non-Hindu traditions of
ancient India
According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by m ...
.
The ancient Sanskrit grammarian
Patanjali
Patanjali ( sa, पतञ्जलि, Patañjali), also called Gonardiya or Gonikaputra, was a Hindu author, mystic and philosopher. Very little is known about him, and while no one knows exactly when he lived; from analysis of his works it i ...
in his ''
Mahabhashya
''Mahabhashya'' ( sa, महाभाष्य, IAST: '','' , "great commentary"), attributed to Patañjali, is a commentary on selected rules of Sanskrit grammar from Pāṇini's treatise, the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'', as well as Kātyāyana's '' ...
'' makes several references to Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse 3.1.26, he also uses the word ''Kamsavadha'' or the "killing of Kamsa", an important part of the legends surrounding Krishna.
Puranas
Many
Puranas
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
, mostly compiled during the
Gupta period
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ...
(4–5th century CE),
tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'' and the ''
Vishnu Purana
The Vishnu Purana (IAST:, sa, विष्णुपुराण) is one of the eighteen Puranas#Mahapuranas, Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature c ...
'', contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story,
but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies. The ''Bhagavata Purana'' consists of twelve books subdivided into 332chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version.
[Barbara Holdrege (2015), Bhakti and Embodiment, Routledge, , pp.109–110] The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text.
Iconography
![Krishna with flute](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Krishna_with_flute.jpg)
Krishna is represented in the
Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features. His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
. However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in
southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
. In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of
Jambul (''
Jamun
''Syzygium cumini'', commonly known as Malabar plum, Java plum, black plum, jamun, jaman, jambul, or jambolan, is an evergreen tropical tree in the flowering plant family Myrtaceae, and favored for its fruit, timber, and ornamental value. It is ...
'', a purple-colored fruit).
Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather
wreath
A wreath () is an assortment of flowers, leaves, fruits, twigs, or various materials that is constructed to form a circle .
In English-speaking countries, wreaths are used typically as household ornaments, most commonly as an Advent and Chri ...
or crown, and playing the
bansuri (Indian flute).
In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of the other in the ''
Tribhanga
Tribhaṅga or Tribunga is a standing body position or stance used in traditional Indian art and Indian classical dance forms like the Odissi, where the body bends in one direction at the knees, the other direction at the hips and then the oth ...
'' posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsman ''Govinda''. Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with the
gopis (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks.
![Krishna Govardhana](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Krishna_Govardhana._Bharat_Kala_Bhavan%2C_ni03-24.jpg)
In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the epic ''
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
''. He is shown as a charioteer, notably when he is addressing the Pandava prince
Arjuna
Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...
character, symbolically reflecting the events that led to the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
''a scripture of Hinduism. In these popular depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna or as the driver of the chariot while Arjuna aims his arrows in the
battlefield of Kurukshetra.
Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby (''
Bala Krishna
Bala Krishna ( sa, बाल कृष्ण, lit=child Krishna/divine child Krishna, translit=Bālakṛṣṇa). Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vasudeva worship alread ...
'', the child Krishna), a toddler crawling on his hands and knees, a dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing or consuming butter (''Makkan Chor''),
holding
Laddu
''Laddu'' or ''laddoo'' (; ms, kuih laddu; id, kue laddu) is a spherical sweet originating from India and spread through the Indian subcontinent and the Malay world. Laddus are primarily made from flour, fat (ghee/butter/oil) and sugar or j ...
in his hand (''Laddu Gopal'') or as a cosmic infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during the
Pralaya
Pralaya ( sa, प्रलय, , Apocalypse or the Annihilation of the Universe, translit=Pralaya) is a concept in Hindu eschatology. Generally referring to four different phenomena, it is most commonly used to indicate the event of the dissol ...
(the cosmic dissolution) observed by sage
Markandeya
Bhargava Markandeya ( sa, मार्कण्डेय ) is an ancient rishi (sage) born in the clan of Bhrigu Rishi (Bhargava Brahmins Community). The Markandeya Purana especially, comprises a dialogue between Markandeya and a sage cal ...
. Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as
Jaganatha
Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...
in Odisha,
Vithoba
Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna. Vithoba is ...
in Maharashtra,
Vithoba
Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna. Vithoba is ...
is not only viewed as a form of Krishna. He is also by some considered that of Vishnu, Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
and Gautama Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
according to various traditions. See: and Shrinathji
Shrinathji is a form of Krishna, manifested as a seven-year-old child (''Balak''). The principal shrine of Shrinathji is the Shrinathji Temple in the temple town of Nathdwara, 48 kilometres north-east of Udaipur city in Rajasthan,India. Shrina ...
in Rajasthan and
Guruvayoorappan
Guruvayurappan ( ml, ഗുരുവായൂരപ്പന്, (transliterated guruvāyūrappan)) also often rendered Guruvayoorappan, is a form of Vishnu worshipped mainly in Kerala. He is the presiding deity of the Guruvayur temple, w ...
in Kerala.
Guidelines for the preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such as ''Vaikhanasa
agama'', ''Vishnu dharmottara'', ''Brihat samhita'', and ''
Agni Purana
The ''Agni Purana'', ( sa, अग्नि पुराण, ) is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas of Hinduism. The text is variously classified as a Purana related to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism, but also co ...
''. Similarly, early medieval-era
Tamil texts also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according to these guidelines are in the collections of the
Government Museum, Chennai
The Government Museum, Chennai, or the Madras Museum, is a museum of human history and culture located in the Government Museum Complex in the neighbourhood of Egmore in Chennai, India. Started in 1851, it is the second oldest museum in India af ...
.
Krishna iconography forms an important element in the figural sculpture on 17th–19th century terracotta temples of Bengal. In many temples, the stories of Krishna are depicted on a long series of narrow panels along the base of the facade. In other temples, the important Krishnalila episodes are depicted on large brick panels above the entrance arches or on the walls surrounding the entrance.
Life and legends
This summary is a mythological account, based on literary details from the ''
Mahābhārata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
'', the ''
Harivamsa'', the ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'', and the ''
Vishnu Purana
The Vishnu Purana (IAST:, sa, विष्णुपुराण) is one of the eighteen Puranas#Mahapuranas, Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature c ...
''. The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
,
Bihar
Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Be ...
,
Rajasthan
Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
,
Haryana
Haryana (; ) is an Indian state located in the northern part of the country. It was carved out of the former state of East Punjab on 1 Nov 1966 on a linguistic basis. It is ranked 21st in terms of area, with less than 1.4% () of India's land ar ...
,
Delhi
Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
, and
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
. The legends about Krishna's life are called ''Krishna charitas'' (
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
: Kṛṣṇacaritas).
Birth
![Indischer Maler um 1755 002](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Indischer_Maler_um_1755_002.jpg)
In the ''Krishna Charitas'', Krishna is born to
Devaki
Devaki (Sanskrit: देवकी, IAST: ''Devakī'') is a character in Hindu literature, most noted for being the mother of the god Krishna. She is one of the seven daughters of Devapa or Devaka, a king of the Yadu dynasty, and has four br ...
and her husband,
Vasudeva
According to Hindu scriptures, Vasudeva (Sanskrit: वसुदेव, IAST: ''Vasudeva''), also called Anakadundubhi, (''anakas'' and ''dundubhis'' both refer to ''drums'', after the musicians who played these instruments at the time of his ...
, of the
Yadava
The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Sat ...
clan in
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
. Devaki's brother is a tyrant named
Kamsa. At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Sometimes, it is depicted as an
akashvani announcing Kamsa's death. Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna away across the Yamuna, and exchanges him with
Yashoda's daughter. When Kamsa tries to kill the newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess
Yogamaya, warning him that his death has arrived in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the Puranas. Krishna grows up with
Nanda
Nanda may refer to:
Indian history and religion
* Nanda Empire, ruled by the Nanda dynasty, an Indian royal dynasty ruling Magadha in the 4th century BCE
** Mahapadma Nanda, first Emperor of the Nanda Empire
** Dhana Nanda (died c. 321 BCE), last ...
and his wife,
Yashoda, near modern-day
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
.
Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namely
Balarama
Balarama (Sanskrit: बलराम, IAST: ''Balarāma'') is a Hindu god and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Balad ...
and
Subhadra
Subhadra ( sa, सुभद्रा, Subhadrā) is a Hindu goddess mentioned in ancient Hindu scriptures like the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Bhagavata Purana''. She is described as the favourite child of Vasudeva and the younger sister of de ...
, according to these legends. The day of the birth of Krishna is celebrated as
Krishna Janmashtami.
Childhood and youth
The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow-herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earn him the nickname ''Makhan Chor'' (butter thief), and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts the
Govardhana hill
Govardhan also called Giriraj, is a key pilgrimage centre in India and a municipal town; a nagar panchayat; seat of a MLA Member of Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh; a Tehsil, in Mathura district in the India in state of Uttar Pradesh. Ab ...
to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from
devastating rains and floods.
Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially
Radha
Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also de ...
. These metaphor-filled love stories are known as the ''
Rasa lila
The rasalila (), also rendered the raslila or the ras dance, is part of the traditional story of Krishna described in Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana and literature such as the Gita Govinda, where he dances with Radha and the gopis ...
'' and were romanticized in the poetry of
Jayadeva
Jayadeva (; born ), also spelt Jaideva, was a Sanskrit poet during the 12th century. He is most known for his epic poem ''Gita Govinda'' which concentrates on Krishna's love with the '' gopi'', Radha, in a rite of spring. This poem, which presen ...
, author of the
Gita Govinda
The ''Gita Govinda'' ( sa, गीत गोविन्दम्; ) is a work composed by the 12th-century Hindu poet, Jayadeva. It describes the relationship between Krishna, Radha and ''gopis'' (female cow herders) of Vrindavan.
The ''Gita G ...
. They are also central to the development of the Krishna
bhakti
''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
traditions worshiping
Radha Krishna
Radha-Krishna (IAST , sa, राधा कृष्ण) are collectively known within Hinduism as the combined forms of feminine as well as the masculine realities of God. Krishna and Radha are the primeval forms of God and his pleasure potenc ...
.
Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept of ''Lila'', playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or
Rasa-lila is an example. Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the
Yamuna River
The Yamuna ( Hindustani: ), also spelt Jumna, is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of about on the southwestern slopes of Ban ...
and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent the ''
prakṛti
Prakriti ( sa, प्रकृति ) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by its Sāṅkhya school, where it does not refer to matter or nature, bu ...
'' matter and the impermanent body.
This ''Lila'' is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game.
This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-Lila and
Janmashtami
Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed ...
, where Hindus in some regions such as
Maharashtra
Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a states and union territories of India, state in the western India, western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the List of states and union te ...
playfully mimic his legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break open ''handis'' (clay pots) hung high in the air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group.
Adulthood
![Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama Garuda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Krishna_Rukmini_Satyabhama_Garuda.jpg)
Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, ''his uncle'' Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father,
Ugrasena as the king of the
Yadava
The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Sat ...
s and becomes a leading prince at the court. In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads the Yadavas to the newly built city of
Dwaraka Dvaraka, Dwaraka, Dwarka may refer to:
Places India
* Dvārakā, ancient city in Gujarat, the capital of the Yadus in the Mahabharata
:* Dvārakā–Kamboja route, an ancient trade-route and a branch of the Silk Road
* Dwarka, Gujarat, also k ...
. Thereafter Pandavas rise. Krishna befriends
Arjuna
Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...
and the other
Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, IAST: Pāṇḍava) refers to the five legendary brothers— Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva—who are the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. They are acknowledg ...
princes of the
Kuru
Kuru may refer to:
Anthropology and history
* Kuru (disease), a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy associated with the cannibalistic funeral practices of the Fore people
* Kuru (mythology), part of Meithei mythology
* Kuru Kingdom, ...
kingdom. Krishna plays a key role in the ''Mahabharata''.
The Bhagavata Purana describes
eight wives of Krishna that appear in sequence as (
Rukmini
Rukmini ( sa, रुक्मिणी, , ) is a Hindu goddess and the first queen and chief wife of Krishna. In Vaishnava tradition, she is described as Krishna's principal queen in Dvaraka, as well as the chief of his wives. She is an inc ...
,
Satyabhama
Satyabhama, also known as Satrajiti, is a Hindu goddess and the third queen-consort of the Hindu god Krishna. Satyabhama is described as the incarnation of Bhudevi, the goddess and the personification of the earth. She aided Krishna in defeati ...
,
Jambavati
Jambavati () is chronologically the second ''Ashtabharya'' of the Hindu god Krishna. She is the only daughter of the bear-king Jambavan. Krishna marries her when he defeats her father, Jambavan, in his quest to retrieve the stolen Syamantaka jew ...
, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti (also called Satya), Bhadra (Krishna's wife), Bhadra and Lakshmana (Krishna's wife), Lakshmana (also called Madra).
According to Dennis Hudson, this is a metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him. According to George Williams, Vaishnava texts mention all Gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is spiritual symbolism of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted to him.
In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen with
Radha
Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also de ...
. All of his wives and his lover Radha are considered in the Hindu tradition to be the
avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...
s of the goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Gopis are considered as Lakshmi's or Radha's manifestations.
[ Quote: "The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, some as Svaminiji, some adding all ''gopis'', and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of one Devi Lakshmi."]
Kurukshetra War and ''Bhagavad Gita''
According to the epic poem ''Mahabharata'', Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the Kurukshetra War, but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down his ''Gandiva'' (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the nature of life, ethics, and morality when one is faced with a war between good and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul and the good, duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace and bliss and the different types of yoga to reach this state of bliss and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as a discourse called the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
''.
Death and ascension
It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War led to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshetra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari said, "Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other. Therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen!" According to the ''Mahabharata'', a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow towards Krishna's foot that fatally injures him. Krishna forgives ''Jara'' and dies.
[, Quote: "Krishna was shot through the foot, hand, and heart by the single arrow of a hunter named Jara. Krishna was reclining there, so they say, and Jara mistook his reddish foot for a deer and released his arrow. There Krishna died."] The pilgrimage (''Tirtha (Hinduism), tirtha'') site of Bhalka in
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
marks the location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known as ''Dehotsarga'', states Diana L. Eck, a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up his body".
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' in Book 11, Chapter 31 states that after his death, Krishna returned to his transcendent abode directly because of his yogic concentration. Waiting gods such as Brahma and Indra were unable to trace the path Krishna took to leave his human incarnation and return to his abode.
Versions and interpretations
There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: the ''Harivamsa'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''. They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles. The most original composition, the ''Harivamsa'' is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves in poetic and Allusion, allusive fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna. Differing in some details, the fifth book of the ''Vishnu Purana'' moves away from ''Harivamsa'' realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies. The ''Vishnu Purana'' manuscripts exist in many versions.
The tenth and eleventh books of the ''Bhagavata Purana'' are widely considered to be a poetic masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life found in the ''Harivamsa''. Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play (''Lila''), where his youth is set as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king. Krishna's life is closer to that of a human being in ''Harivamsa'', but is a symbolic universe in the ''Bhagavata Purana'', where Krishna is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself, always. The ''Bhagavata Purana'' manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian languages.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is considered as the incarnation of Krishna in Gaudiya Vaishnavism and by the ISKCON community.
Proposed datings
![RadhaKrishnaUdaipur](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/RadhaKrishnaUdaipur.JPG)
The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as
Janmashtami
Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed ...
.
According to Guy Beck, "most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of Krishnathat he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic and puranic histories." Yet, Beck also notes that there is an "enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit canon".
According to mythologies in the Jain tradition, Krishna was a cousin of Neminatha. Neminatha is believed in the Jain tradition to have been born 84,000 years before the 9th-centuryBCE Parshvanatha, the twenty-third ''tirthankara''.
Philosophy and theology
![12th-century Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings lost in music at Shaivism Hindu temple Hoysaleswara arts Halebidu Karnataka India](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/12th-century_Krishna_playing_flute_with_gathered_living_beings_lost_in_music_at_Shaivism_Hindu_temple_Hoysaleswara_arts_Halebidu_Karnataka_India.jpg)
A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. The teachings of the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'' can be considered, according to Friedhelm Hardy, as the first Krishnaite system of theology.
Ramanuja, a Hindu theologian and philosopher whose works were influential in
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
,
presented him in terms of qualified monism, or nondualism (namely Vishishtadvaita school). Madhvacharya, a philosopher whose works led to the founding of Haridasa tradition of Vaishnavism,
presented Krishna in the framework of Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualism (Dvaita). Bhedabhedaa group of schools, which teaches that the individual self is both different and not different from the ultimate realitypredates the positions of monism and dualism. Among medieval Bhedabheda thinkers are Nimbarkacharya, who founded the Nimbarka Sampradaya, Kumara Sampradaya (Dvaitadvaita philosophical school), as well as Jiva Goswami, a saint from Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Gaudiya Vaishnava school, described Krishna theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and Achintya Bheda Abheda. Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism (advaita, called ''shuddhadvaita'') framework by Vallabha Acharya, who was the founder of Pushtimarg, Pushti sect of vaishnavism. Madhusudana Sarasvati, an India philosopher,
presented Krishna theology in nondualism-monism framework (Advaita Vedanta), while Adi Shankara, who is credited for unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on Panchayatana puja.
The ''Bhagavata Purana'', a popular text on Krishna considered to be like scripture in Assam, synthesizes an Advaita, Samkhya, and Yoga framework for Krishna but one that proceeds through loving devotion to Krishna. Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana as,
While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view emphasized in the Bhagavata is nondualism, non-dualist with a difference. In conventional nondual Vedanta, all reality is interconnected and one, the Bhagavata posits that the reality is interconnected and plural.
Across the various theologies and philosophies, the common theme presents Krishna as the essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love as a reflection of the divine. The longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the gopis, his playful pranks as a baby, as well as his later dialogues with other characters, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the human soul. Krishna's ''lila'' is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "love is presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love.
Other texts that include Krishna such as the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'' have attracted numerous ''bhasya'' (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions.
Though only a part of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata'', it has functioned as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises through Krishna and Arjuna the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life, then presents a spectrum of answers, weighing in on the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities towards self and towards others.
This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous interpretations, from being a metaphor of inner human struggle teaching non-violence, to being a metaphor of outer human struggle teaching a rejection of quietism to persecution.
Influence
Vaishnavism
The worship of Krishna is part of
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
, a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself. However, the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,
[See Beck, Guy, ''"Introduction"'' in ] with Krishna of Krishnaism, Krishnaite sampradayas considered an independent deity and supreme.
Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such as Krishna as supreme. The terms
Krishnaism
Krishnaism (IAST: ''Kṛṣṇaism'') is a large group of independent Hinduism, Hindu traditions—sampradayas related to Vaishnavism—that center on the devotion to Krishna as ''Svayam Bhagavan'', ''Ishvara'', ''Para Brahman'', the source of ...
and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to distinguish the two, the former implying that Krishna is the transcendent Supreme Being. Some scholars, as Friedhelm Hardy, do not define Krishnaism as a sub-order or offshoot of Vaishnavism, considering it a parallel and no less ancient current of Hinduism.
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as the eighth avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu, while Krishnaite traditions such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,
[See McDaniel, June, ''Folk Vaishnavism and : Life and status among village Krishna statues'' in ] Ekasarana Dharma, Mahanam Sampraday, Nimbarka Sampradaya and the Pushtimarg, Vallabha Sampradaya regard Krishna as the ''
Svayam Bhagavan'', the original form of Lord or the same as the concept of Brahman in Hinduism.
[Delmonico, N., ''The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism'' in ][ p. 113: "The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest personal God."] Gitagovinda of
Jayadeva
Jayadeva (; born ), also spelt Jaideva, was a Sanskrit poet during the 12th century. He is most known for his epic poem ''Gita Govinda'' which concentrates on Krishna's love with the '' gopi'', Radha, in a rite of spring. This poem, which presen ...
considers Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms. Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the
Vasudeva
According to Hindu scriptures, Vasudeva (Sanskrit: वसुदेव, IAST: ''Vasudeva''), also called Anakadundubhi, (''anakas'' and ''dundubhis'' both refer to ''drums'', after the musicians who played these instruments at the time of his ...
, Krishna, and Gopal (Krishna), Gopala of the late Vedic period. Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.
Early traditions
The deity ''Krishna-Vasudeva'' (' "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva Anakadundubhi") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in
Krishnaism
Krishnaism (IAST: ''Kṛṣṇaism'') is a large group of independent Hinduism, Hindu traditions—sampradayas related to Vaishnavism—that center on the devotion to Krishna as ''Svayam Bhagavan'', ''Ishvara'', ''Para Brahman'', the source of ...
and
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
.
It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of Krishna religion in antiquity. Thereafter, there was an amalgamation of various similar traditions. These include ancient Bhagavatism, the cult of Gopala, of "Krishna Govinda" (cow-finding Krishna), of Bala Krishna, Balakrishna (baby Krishna) and of "Krishna Gopivallabha" (Krishna the lover).
According to Andre Couture, the
Harivamsa contributed to the synthesis of various characters as aspects of Krishna.
Already in the early Middle Ages, the Jagannathism ( Odisha, Odia Vaishnavism) was origined as the cult of the god
Jagannath
Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...
()an abstract form of Krishna. Jagannathism was a regional temple-centered version of
Krishnaism
Krishnaism (IAST: ''Kṛṣṇaism'') is a large group of independent Hinduism, Hindu traditions—sampradayas related to Vaishnavism—that center on the devotion to Krishna as ''Svayam Bhagavan'', ''Ishvara'', ''Para Brahman'', the source of ...
, where Lord Jagannath is understood as a principal god, Purushottama and Para Brahman, but can also be regarded as a non-sectarian syncretic Vaishnavite and all-Hindu cult. According to the ''Vishnudharma Purana'' ( 4th century), Krishna is woshipped in the form of Purushottama in Odia (Odisha). The notable Jagannath Temple, Puri, Jagannath temple in Puri, Odisha became particularly significant within the tradition since about 800 CE.
Bhakti tradition
![Meerabai (crop)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Meerabai_%28crop%29.jpg)
The use of the term bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However, Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism, particularly among the Vaishnava Krishnaism, Krishnaite sects.
Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of ''lila (divine play), lila'', meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''.
[Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, , pp. 302–303, 318]
Indian subcontinent
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9thcenturies CE. The earliest works included those of the Alvars, Alvar saints of
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
.
A major collection of their works is the ''Divya Prabandham''. Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.
The movement originated in South India during the 7th century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the 15thcentury, it was established in Bengal and northern India. Early Krishnaism, Krishnaite Bhakti pioneers included Nimbarkacharya (12th or 13thcentury CE), but most emerged later, including Vallabhacharya (15thcentury CE) and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. They started their own schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism, with Krishna and Radha as the supreme gods. In addition, since the 15th century, flourished Tantra, Tantric variety of Krishnaism, Vaishnava-Sahajiya, is linked to the Bengali poet Chandidas.
In the Deccan Plateau, Deccan, particularly in
Maharashtra
Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a states and union territories of India, state in the western India, western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the List of states and union te ...
, saint poets of the Warkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath, and Tukaram promoted the worship of
Vithoba
Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna. Vithoba is ...
,
a local form of Krishna, from between the 13th to 18th century.
Before the Warkari tradition, Krishna devotion became well established in Maharashtra due to the rise of the Mahanubhava, Mahanubhava Sampradaya founded by Sarvajna Chakradhar Swami, Chakradhara. The Pranami, Pranami Sampradaya emerged in the 17th century in
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
, based on the Krishna-focussed syncretist Hindu-Islamic teachings of Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath. In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of
Udupi
Udupi (alternate spelling Udipi; also known as Odipu) is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. Udupi is situated about north of the educational, commercial and industrial hub of Mangalore and about west of state capital Bangalore by road.
...
. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti called Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.
In South India, the acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverently about Krishna in most of their works, including the Thiruppavai by Andal and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala states have many major Krishna temples, and
Janmashtami
Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed ...
is one of the widely celebrated festivals in South India.
Outside Asia
![Radhakrishna manor](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Radhakrishna_manor.JPG)
By 1965, the ''Krishna-bhakti'' movement had spread outside India after Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (as instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) travelled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later, in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the
International Society for Krishna Consciousness
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known Colloquialism, colloquially as the Hare Krishna movement or Hare Krishnas, is a Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Gaudiya Vaishnava Hinduism, Hindu religious organization. ISKCON was found ...
(ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In the biographies of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the mantra he received when he was given diksha or initiation in Gaya, India, Gaya was the six-word verse of the ''Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad, Kali-Santarana Upanishad'', namely "Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare". In the Gaudiya tradition, it is the ''maha-mantra'', or great mantra, about Krishna
bhakti
''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
. Its chanting was known as ''hari-nama sankirtana''.
The ''maha-mantra'' gained the attention of George Harrison and John Lennon of The Beatles fame,
and Harrison produced a 1969 recording of the mantra by devotees from the London Radha Krishna Temple. Titled "Hare Krishna Mantra (song), Hare Krishna Mantra", the song reached the top twenty on the UK music charts and was also successful in West Germany and Czechoslovakia.
[Peter Clarke (2005), ''Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements'', Routledge, , p. 308 Quote: "There they captured the imagination of The Beatles, particularly George Harrison who helped them produce a chart-topping record of the Hare Krishna mantra (1969) and ...".] The mantra of the Upanishad thus helped bring Bhaktivedanta and ISKCON ideas about Krishna into the West.
[Charles Brooks (1989), ''The Hare Krishnas in India'', Princeton University Press, , pp. 83–85] ISCKON has built many Krishna temples in the West, as well as other locations such as South Africa.
Southeast Asia
Krishna is found in Southeast Asian history and art, but to a far lesser extent than
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
, Durga, Nandi (bull), Nandi, Agastya, and Buddha. In temples (''candi'') of the archaeological sites in hilly volcanic Java, Indonesia, temple reliefs do not portray his pastoral life or his role as the erotic lover, nor do the historic Javanese Hindu texts. Rather, either his childhood or the life as a king and Arjuna's companion have been more favored. The most elaborate temple arts of Krishna is found in a series of ''Krsnayana'' reliefs in the Prambanan Hindu temple complex near Yogyakarta. These are dated to the 9thcentury CE. Krishna remained a part of the Javanese cultural and theological fabric through the 14thcentury, as evidenced by the 14th-century Penataran reliefs along with those of the Hindu god Rama in east Java, before Islam replaced Buddhism and Hinduism on the island.
The medieval era arts of Vietnam and Cambodia feature Krishna. The earliest surviving sculptures and reliefs are from the 6th and 7thcenturies, and these include Vaishnavism iconography.
According to John Guy, the curator and director of Southeast Asian arts at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Krishna Govardhana art from 6th/7th-century Vietnam at Danang, and 7th-century Cambodia at Phnom Da cave in Angkor Borei District, Angkor Borei, are some of the most sophisticated of this era.
Krishna's iconography has also been found in Thailand, along with those of Surya and
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
. For example, a large number of sculptures and icons have been found in the SiThep and Klangnai sites in the Phetchabun Province, Phetchabun region of northern Thailand. These are dated to about the 7th and 8thcenturies, from both the Funan and Zhenla period archaeological sites.
Performance arts
Indian dance and music theatre traces its origins and techniques to the ancient ''Samaveda, Sama Veda'' and ''Natyasastra'' texts. The stories enacted and the numerous choreographic themes are inspired by the mythologies and legends in Hindu texts, including Krishna-related literature such as ''
Harivamsa'' and ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
''.
The Krishna stories have played a key role in the history of Indian theatre, music, and dance, particularly through the tradition of Rasa leela, ''Rasaleela''. These are dramatic enactments of Krishna's childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. One common scene involves Krishna playing flute in Rasa Leela, only to be heard by certain gopis (cowherd maidens), which is theologically supposed to represent divine call only heard by certain enlightened beings. Some of the text's legends have inspired secondary theatre literature such as the eroticism in
Gita Govinda
The ''Gita Govinda'' ( sa, गीत गोविन्दम्; ) is a work composed by the 12th-century Hindu poet, Jayadeva. It describes the relationship between Krishna, Radha and ''gopis'' (female cow herders) of Vrindavan.
The ''Gita G ...
.
Krishna-related literature such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' accords a metaphysical significance to the performances and treats them as a religious ritual, infusing daily life with spiritual meaning, thus representing a good, honest, happy life. Similarly, Krishna-inspired performances aim to cleanse the hearts of faithful actors and listeners. Singing, dancing, and performing any part of ''Krishna Lila'' is an act of remembering the dharma in the text, as a form of ''para bhakti'' (supreme devotion). To remember Krishna at any time and in any art, asserts the text, is to worship the good and the divine.
Classical dance styles such as Kathak, Odissi dance, Odissi, Manipuri dance, Manipuri,
Kuchipudi
Kuchipudi () ( Telugu: ) is one of the eight major Indian classical dances. It originates from a village named Kuchipudi in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.
Kuchipudi is a dance-drama performance, with its roots in the ancient Hindu Sa ...
and
Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of S ...
in particular are known for their Krishna-related performances. Krisnattam (Krishnattam) traces its origins to Krishna legends, and is linked to another major classical Indian dance form called
Kathakali
Kathakali ( ml, കഥകളി) is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up and costumes of the traditional male actor-dancers. It is native to the M ...
.
Bryant summarizes the influence of Krishna stories in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' as, "[it] has inspired more derivative literature, poetry, drama, dance, theatre and art than any other text in the history of Sanskrit literature, with the possible exception of the ''Ramayana''.
The Palliyodam, a type of large built and used by Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple in Kerala for the annual water processions of Aranmula Boat Race, Uthrattathi Jalamela and Valla Sadhya has the legend that it was designed by Lord Krishna and were made to look like Sheshanaga, the serpent on which Lord Vishnu rests.
Temples
* Bankey Bihari Temple
* Radha Raman Temple
* Jagannath Temple, Puri
* Dwarkadhish Temple,
Dwarka
Dwarka () is a city and a municipality of Devbhumi Dwarka district in the state of Gujarat in Western India. It is located on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula on the right bank of the Gomti river at the mouth of the Gulf of Kut ...
* Vithoba Temple, Pandarpur
* Shrinathji Temple,
Nathdwara
Nathdwara is a town near Rajsamand city in the Rajsamand district of the state of Rajasthan, India. It is located in the Aravalli hills, on the banks of the Banas River and is 48 kilometres north-east of Udaipur. Shrinathji, is a swarup o ...
* Guruvayur Temple,
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
* Radha Vallabh Temple, Vrindavan
* Udupi Sri Krishna Matha
* Prem Mandir, Vrindavan
* Krishna Balaram Mandir
* Dakor, Ranchodrai Temple, Dakor
* Radha Damodar Temple, Junagadh
* Radha Damodar Temple, Vrindavan
* Govind Dev Ji Temple, Jaipur
* Shree Govindajee Temple, Imphal
* Madan Mohan Temple, Karauli
* Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan
* Dwarkadheesh temple Mathura
* Radha Madhab Temple, Bishnupur, Bankura, Bishnupur
* Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex,
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
* Kantajew Temple, Bangladesh
* Swaminarayan, Swaminarayan Temples
** Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Dholera
** Swaminarayan Mandir, Gadhada, Gopinathji Dev Mandir
* International Society for Krishna Consciousness, ISKCON Temples
** ISKCON Temple, Bangalore, ISKCON Temple, Banglore
** ISKCON Temple, Pune
** ISKCON Temple, Delhi
** Iskcon Prabartak Sri Krishna Temple
** Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir, Vrindavan Chandrodara Mandir
** ISKCON Temple, Chennai
* Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi
* Parthasarathy Temple, Chennai
Krishna outside of Hinduism
Jainism
The
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
tradition lists 63 ''Śalākāpuruṣa'' or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-four ''
Tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
s'' (spiritual teachers) and nine sets of triads. One of these triads is Krishna as the ''Vasudeva'',
Balarama
Balarama (Sanskrit: बलराम, IAST: ''Balarāma'') is a Hindu god and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Balad ...
as the ''Balabhadra, Baladeva'', and Jarasandha as the ''Prati-Vasudeva''. In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a ''Vasudeva'' with an elder brother termed the ''Baladeva''. Between the triads, ''Baladeva'' upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea of Jainism. The villain is the ''Prati-vasudeva'', who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world, ''Vasudeva-Krishna'' has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill the ''Prati-Vasudeva''. The stories of these triads can be found in the ''Harivamsa Purana'' (8thcentury CE) of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to ''Mahābhārata'') and the ''Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita'' of Hemachandra.
[See Jerome H. Bauer "Hero of Wonders, Hero in Deeds]
"Vasudeva Krishna in Jaina Cosmohistory
in
The story of Krishna's life in the ''Puranas'' of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details, they are very different: they include Jain ''Tirthankaras'' as characters in the story, and generally are polemically critical of Krishna, unlike the versions found in the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''. For example, Krishna loses battles in the Jain versions, and his ''gopis'' and his clan of Yadavas die in a fire created by an ascetic named Dvaipayana. Similarly, after dying from the hunter Jara's arrow, the Jaina texts state Krishna goes to the Naraka (Jainism), third hell in Jain cosmology, while his brother is said to go to the Svarga (Jainism), sixth heaven.
Vimalasuri is attributed to be the author of the Jain version of the ''Harivamsa Purana'', but no manuscripts have been found that confirm this. It is likely that later Jain scholars, probably Jinasena of the 8thcentury, wrote a complete version of Krishna legends in the Jain tradition and credited it to the ancient Vimalasuri.
Partial and older versions of the Krishna story are available in Jain literature, such as in the ''Antagata Dasao'' of the ''Svetambara'' ''Agama'' tradition.
In other Jain texts, Krishna is stated to be a cousin of the twenty-second ''Tirthankara'', Neminatha. The Jain texts state that Neminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''. According to Jeffery D. Long, a professor of religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read, and cite the ''Bhagavad Gita'' as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna-related festivals, and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.
Buddhism
![Krishna-in-Kyoto-1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Krishna-in-Kyoto-1.jpg)
The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism. The ''Vidhurapandita Jataka'' mentions ''Madhura'' (Sanskrit: Mathura), the ''Ghata Jataka'' mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk: Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, Keshava).
Like the Jaina versions of the Krishna legends, the Buddhist versions such as one in ''Ghata Jataka'' follow the general outline of the story, but are different from the Hindu versions as well.
For example, the Buddhist legend describes Devagabbha (Devaki) to have been isolated in a palace built upon a pole after she is born, so no future husband could reach her. Krishna's father similarly is described as a powerful king, but who meets up with Devagabbha anyway, and to whom Kamsa gives away his sister Devagabbha in marriage. The siblings of Krishna are not killed by Kamsa, though he tries. In the Buddhist version of the legend, all of Krishna's siblings grow to maturity.
Krishna and his siblings' capital becomes Dvaravati. The Arjuna and Krishna interaction is missing in the Jataka version. A new legend is included, wherein Krishna laments in uncontrollable sorrow when his son dies, and a Ghatapandita feigns madness to teach Krishna a lesson. The Jataka tale also includes internecine destruction among his siblings after they all get drunk. Krishna also dies in the Buddhist legend by the hand of a hunter named Jara, but while he is traveling to a frontier city. Mistaking Krishna for a pig, Jara throws a spear that fatally pierces his feet, causing Krishna great pain and then his death.
At the end of this ''Ghata-Jataka'' discourse, the Buddhist text declares that Sariputta, one of the revered disciples of the Buddha in the Buddhist tradition, was incarnated as Krishna in his previous life to learn lessons on grief from the Buddha in his prior rebirth:
While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Krishna-Vasudeva and make him a student of the Buddha in his previous life,
the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an
avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...
of
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
. In Chinese Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion, the figure of Krishna has been amalgamated and merged with that of Nalakuvara to influence the formation of the god Nezha, who has taken on iconographic characteristics of Krishna such as being presented as a divine god-child and slaying a nāga in his youth.
Other
![Raja Ravi Varma, Yasoda Adorning Krishna](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Raja_Ravi_Varma%2C_Yasoda_Adorning_Krishna.jpg)
Krishna is mentioned as "Krishna Avtar" in the ''Chaubis Avtar'', a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Sikh Guru Gobind Singh.
Within the Sikh-derived 19th-century Radha Soami movement, the followers of its founder Shiv Dayal Singh used to consider him the Living Master and incarnation of God (Lord Krishna/Vishnu).
Baháʼí Faith, Baháʼís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith), Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Gautama Buddha, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.
Ahmadiyya, a 20th-century Islamic movement, consider Krishna as one of their ancient prophets. Ghulam Ahmad stated that he was himself a prophet in the likeness of prophets such as Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad, who had come to earth as a latter-day reviver of religion and morality.
Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19thcentury, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek mythology, Greek,
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
, Bible, biblical, and even historical figures. For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a ''Great Initiate'', while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (Theosophy), Maitreya (one of the Ascended master, Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha.
[See for example: , , and ]
Krishna was canonised by Aleister Crowley and is recognised as a saint of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi Orientis.
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General and cited ources
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* ''The Mahabharata'' of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896
* ''The Vishnu-Purana'', translated by H. H. Wilson, (1840)
* ''The Srimad Bhagavatam'', translated by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (1988) copyright Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
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* ''The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births'', edited by E. B. Cowell, (1895)
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* ''Garuda Pillar of Besnagar'', Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908–1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129.
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* ''History of Indian Theatre'' By M. L. Varadpande. Chapter ''Theatre of Krishna'', pp. 231–94. Published 1991, Abhinav Publications, .
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Further reading
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External links
{{Authority control
Krishna,
Akilattirattu Ammanai
Avatars of Vishnu
Ayyavazhi mythology
Creator gods
Characters in the Bhagavata Purana
Characters in the Mahabharata
Commerce gods
Destroyer gods
Flautists
Forms of Vishnu
Fortune gods
Heroes in mythology and legend
Hindu eschatology
Hindu given names
Hindu gods
Life-death-rebirth gods
Love and lust gods
Miracle workers
Names of God in Hinduism
People from Mathura
Puranic chronology
Salakapurusa
Savior gods
Self-declared messiahs
Vaishnavism
Wisdom gods
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain