![Radio propagation noise](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Radio_propagation_noise.jpg)
In
wireless communication
Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the transfer of information between two or more points without the use of an electrical conductor, optical fiber or other continuous guided medium for the transfer. The most ...
s, fading is variation of the
attenuation
In physics, attenuation (in some contexts, extinction) is the gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium. For instance, dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, and water and air attenuate both light and sound at variable att ...
of a signal with various variables. These variables include time, geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as a
random process
In probability theory and related fields, a stochastic () or random process is a mathematical object usually defined as a family of random variables. Stochastic processes are widely used as mathematical models of systems and phenomena that appe ...
. A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to
multipath propagation
In radio communication, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflec ...
, referred to as multipath-induced fading, weather (particularly rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the
wave propagation
Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel. Single wave propagation can be calculated by 2nd order wave equation ( standing wavefield) or 1st order one-way wave equation.
With respect to the direction of the oscillation relative to ...
, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
Key concepts
The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the
superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each signal copy will experience differences in
attenuation
In physics, attenuation (in some contexts, extinction) is the gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium. For instance, dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, and water and air attenuate both light and sound at variable att ...
,
delay
Delay (from Latin: dilatio) may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* ''Delay 1968'', a 1981 album by German experimental rock band Can
* ''The Delay'', a 2012 Uruguayan film
People
* B. H. DeLay (1891–1923), American aviator and acto ...
and
phase shift
In physics and mathematics, the phase of a periodic function F of some real variable t (such as time) is an angle-like quantity representing the fraction of the cycle covered up to t. It is denoted \phi(t) and expressed in such a scale that it v ...
while traveling from the source to the receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive interference, amplifying or attenuating the signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the channel
signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in deci ...
.
A common example of deep fade is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference. Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary fades.
Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic communications to model the distortion caused by the water.
Types
Slow versus fast fading
The terms ''slow'' and ''fast'' fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase change imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The
coherence time
For an electromagnetic wave, the coherence time is the time over which a propagating wave (especially a laser or maser beam) may be considered coherent, meaning that its phase is, on average, predictable.
In long-distance transmission systems, ...
is a measure of the minimum time required for the magnitude change or phase change of the channel to become uncorrelated from its previous value.
* Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay requirement of the application. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the receiver. The received power change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a
log-normal distribution
In probability theory, a log-normal (or lognormal) distribution is a continuous probability distribution of a random variable whose logarithm is normally distributed. Thus, if the random variable is log-normally distributed, then has a norma ...
with a standard deviation according to the
log-distance path loss model.
* Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay requirement of the application. In this case, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the period of use.
In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the channel conditions using
time diversity
Time diversity is used in digital communication systems to combat that the transmissions channel may suffer from error bursts due to time-varying channel conditions. The error bursts may be caused by fading in combination with a moving receiver, tr ...
to help increase robustness of the communication to a temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the information transmitted, use of an
error-correcting code
In computing, telecommunication, information theory, and coding theory, an error correction code, sometimes error correcting code, (ECC) is used for controlling errors in data over unreliable or noisy communication channels. The central idea is ...
coupled with successfully transmitted bits during other time instances (
interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be recovered. In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter sees only a single realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.
![Coherence time](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Coherence_time.png)
The coherence time of the channel is related to a quantity known as the Doppler spread of the channel. When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's velocity causes a shift in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path. This phenomenon is known as the
Doppler shift
The Doppler effect or Doppler shift (or simply Doppler, when in context) is the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source. It is named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who d ...
. Signals traveling along different paths can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different rates of change in phase. The difference in Doppler shifts between different signal components contributing to a signal fading channel tap is known as the Doppler spread. Channels with a large Doppler spread have signal components that are each changing independently in phase over time. Since fading depends on whether signal components add constructively or destructively, such channels have a very short coherence time.
In general, coherence time is inversely related to Doppler spread, typically expressed as
:
where
is the coherence time,
is the Doppler spread. This equation is just an approximation, to be exact, see
Coherence time
For an electromagnetic wave, the coherence time is the time over which a propagating wave (especially a laser or maser beam) may be considered coherent, meaning that its phase is, on average, predictable.
In long-distance transmission systems, ...
.
Block fading
Block fading is where the fading process is approximately constant for a number of symbol intervals. A channel can be 'doubly block-fading' when it is block fading in both the time and frequency domains. Many wireless communications channels are dynamic by nature, and are commonly modeled as block fading. In these channels each block of symbol goes through a statistically independent transformation. Typically the slowly-varying channels based on jakes model of Rayleigh spectrum is used for block fading in an
OFDM
In telecommunications, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a type of digital transmission and a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital commun ...
system.
Selective fading
![Coherence bandwidth](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Coherence_bandwidth.png)
Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a
radio propagation
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves as they travel, or are propagated, from one point to another in vacuum, or into various parts of the atmosphere.
As a form of electromagnetic radiation, like light waves, radio waves are affecte ...
anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a radio
signal
In signal processing, a signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon. Any quantity that can vary over space or time can be used as a signal to share messages between observers. The '' IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing' ...
by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by
two different paths, and at least one of the paths is changing (lengthening or shortening). This typically happens in the early evening or early morning as the various layers in the
ionosphere
The ionosphere () is the ionized part of the upper atmosphere of Earth, from about to above sea level, a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. It plays an ...
move, separate, and combine. The two paths can both be
skywave
In radio communication, skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back toward Earth from the ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere. Since it is not limited by the curvature of ...
or one be
groundwave
In physics, a surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the interface between differing media. A common example is gravity waves along the surface of liquids, such as ocean waves. Gravity waves can also occur within liquids, at t ...
.
Selective fading manifests as a slow, cyclic disturbance; the cancellation effect, or "null", is deepest at one particular frequency, which changes constantly, sweeping through the received
audio
Audio most commonly refers to sound, as it is transmitted in signal form. It may also refer to:
Sound
*Audio signal, an electrical representation of sound
*Audio frequency, a frequency in the audio spectrum
*Digital audio, representation of sound ...
.
As the
carrier frequency
In telecommunications, a carrier wave, carrier signal, or just carrier, is a waveform (usually sinusoidal) that is modulated (modified) with an information-bearing signal for the purpose of conveying information. This carrier wave usually has a m ...
of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary. The
coherence bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading.
* In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading.
* In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience uncorrelated fading.
Since different frequency components of the signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) and
code-division multiple access
Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communicatio ...
(CDMA) are well-suited to employing frequency diversity to provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated narrowband
subcarrier
A subcarrier is a sideband of a radio frequency carrier wave, which is modulated to send additional information. Examples include the provision of colour in a black and white television system or the provision of stereo in a monophonic radio broa ...
s, each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated by means of
error coding
In information theory and coding theory with applications in computer science and telecommunication, error detection and correction (EDAC) or error control are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital data over unreliable communic ...
, simple
equalization or adaptive
bit loading
The bit is the most basic unit of information in computing and digital communications. The name is a portmanteau of binary digit. The bit represents a logical state with one of two possible values. These values are most commonly represented a ...
. Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing a guard interval between the symbols called a
cyclic prefix
In telecommunications, the term cyclic prefix refers to the prefixing of a symbol, with a repetition of the end. The receiver is typically configured to discard the cyclic prefix samples, but the cyclic prefix serves two purposes:
* It provides a ...
. CDMA uses the
rake receiver
A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counter the effects of multipath fading. It does this by using several "sub-receivers" called ''fingers'', that is, several correlators each assigned to a different multipath component. Each finger ...
to deal with each echo separately.
Frequency-selective fading channels are also ''dispersive'', in that the signal energy associated with each symbol is spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that are adjacent in time to interfere with each other.
Equalizers are often deployed in such channels to compensate for the effects of the
intersymbol interference
In telecommunication, intersymbol interference (ISI) is a form of distortion of a signal in which one symbol interferes with subsequent symbols. This is an unwanted phenomenon as the previous symbols have a similar effect as noise, thus making ...
.
The echoes may also be exposed to
Doppler shift
The Doppler effect or Doppler shift (or simply Doppler, when in context) is the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source. It is named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who d ...
, resulting in a time varying channel model.
The effect can be counteracted by applying some
diversity scheme, for example OFDM (with subcarrier
interleaving and
forward error correction
In computing, telecommunication, information theory, and coding theory, an error correction code, sometimes error correcting code, (ECC) is used for controlling errors in data over unreliable or noisy communication channels. The central idea is ...
), or by using two
receivers with separate
antenna
Antenna ( antennas or antennae) may refer to:
Science and engineering
* Antenna (radio), also known as an aerial, a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic (e.g., TV or radio) waves
* Antennae Galaxies, the name of two collid ...
s spaced a quarter-
wavelength
In physics, the wavelength is the spatial period of a periodic wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats.
It is the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase on the wave, such as two adjacent crests, tro ...
apart, or a specially designed
diversity receiver with two antennas. Such a receiver continuously compares the signals arriving at the two antennas and presents the better signal.
Upfade
Upfade is a special case of fading, used to describe
constructive interference
In physics, interference is a phenomenon in which two waves combine by adding their displacement together at every single point in space and time, to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. Constructive and destructive ...
, in situations where a radio signal gains strength. Some multipath conditions cause a signal's amplitude to be increased in this way because signals travelling by different paths arrive at the
receiver in phase
In physics and mathematics, the phase of a periodic function F of some real variable t (such as time) is an angle-like quantity representing the fraction of the cycle covered up to t. It is denoted \phi(t) and expressed in such a scale that it ...
and become additive to the main signal. Hence, the total signal that reaches the receiver will be stronger than the signal would otherwise have been without the multipath conditions.
The effect is also noticeable in
wireless LAN
A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network
A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between network nodes.
Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and bus ...
systems.
[Barry D. Lewis, Peter T. Davis ''Wireless networks for dummies'', For Dummies, 2004 , page 234]
Models
Examples of fading models for the distribution of the attenuation are:
* ''Dispersive fading'' models, with several echoes, each exposed to different delay, gain and phase shift, often constant. This results in frequency selective fading and inter-symbol interference. The gains may be Rayleigh or Rician distributed. The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.
*
Nakagami fading
*
Log-normal shadow fading
*
Rayleigh fading Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of a propagation environment on a radio signal, such as that used by wireless devices.
Rayleigh fading models assume that the magnitude of a signal that has passed through such a transmission m ...
*
Rician fading
*
Two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading
*
Weibull fading
Mitigation
Fading can cause poor performance in a communication system because it can result in a loss of signal power without reducing the power of the noise. This signal loss can be over some or all of the signal bandwidth. Fading can also be a problem as it changes over time: communication systems are often designed to adapt to such impairments, but the fading can change faster than the adaptations can be made. In such cases, the probability of experiencing a fade (and associated bit errors as the
signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in deci ...
drops) on the channel becomes the limiting factor in the link's performance.
The effects of fading can be combated by using
diversity
Diversity, diversify, or diverse may refer to:
Business
*Diversity (business), the inclusion of people of different identities (ethnicity, gender, age) in the workforce
*Diversity marketing, marketing communication targeting diverse customers
* ...
to transmit the signal over multiple channels that experience independent fading and coherently combining them at the receiver. The probability of experiencing a fade in this composite channel is then proportional to the probability that all the component channels simultaneously experience a fade, a much more unlikely event.
Diversity can be achieved in time, frequency, or space. Common techniques used to overcome signal fading include:
*
Diversity reception and transmission
*
MIMO
In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO (), is a method for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmission and receiving antennas to exploit multipath propagation. MIMO has become an essential element of wir ...
*
OFDM
In telecommunications, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a type of digital transmission and a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital commun ...
*
Rake receiver
A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counter the effects of multipath fading. It does this by using several "sub-receivers" called ''fingers'', that is, several correlators each assigned to a different multipath component. Each finger ...
s
*
Space–time code
A space–time code (STC) is a method employed to improve the reliability of data transmission in wireless communication systems using multiple transmit antennas. STCs rely on transmitting multiple, redundant copies of a data stream to the ...
s
*
Forward error correction
In computing, telecommunication, information theory, and coding theory, an error correction code, sometimes error correcting code, (ECC) is used for controlling errors in data over unreliable or noisy communication channels. The central idea is ...
*
Interleaving
Besides diversity, techniques such as application of
cyclic prefix
In telecommunications, the term cyclic prefix refers to the prefixing of a symbol, with a repetition of the end. The receiver is typically configured to discard the cyclic prefix samples, but the cyclic prefix serves two purposes:
* It provides a ...
(e.g. in
OFDM
In telecommunications, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a type of digital transmission and a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital commun ...
) and
channel estimation In wireless communications, channel state information (CSI) is the known channel properties of a communication link. This information describes how a signal propagates from the transmitter to the receiver and represents the combined effect of, for ...
and
equalization can also be used to tackle fading.
See also
*
Attenuation distortion
Attenuation distortion is the distortion of an analog signal that occurs during transmission when the transmission medium does not have a flat frequency response across the bandwidth of the medium or the frequency spectrum of the signal.Rowe, St ...
*
Backhoe fade
A backhoe—also called rear actor or back actor—is a type of excavating equipment, or excavator, digger, consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part articulated arm. It is typically mounted on the back of a tractor or loader (equip ...
*
Diversity schemes
*
Fade margin In telecommunication, the term fade margin (fading margin) has the following meanings:
*A design allowance that provides for sufficient system gain or sensitivity to accommodate expected fading, for the purpose of ensuring that the required qua ...
*
Fading distribution
*
Frequency of optimum transmission Frequency of optimum transmission (FOT), in the transmission of radio waves via ionospheric reflection, is the highest effective (i.e. working) frequency that is predicted to be usable for a specified path and time for 90% of the days of the month. ...
*
Link budget
A link budget is an accounting of all of the power gains and losses that a communication signal experiences in a telecommunication system; from a transmitter, through a communication medium such as radio waves, cable, waveguide, or optical fibe ...
*
Lowest usable high frequency
The lowest usable high frequency (LUF), in radio transmission, is a frequency in the HF band at which the received field intensity is sufficient to provide the required signal-to-noise ratio for a specified time period, e.g., 0100 to 0200 UTC, on ...
*
Maximum usable frequency
In radio transmission maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest radio frequency that can be used for transmission between two points via reflection from the ionosphere (skywave or "skip" propagation) at a specified time, independent of transm ...
*
Multipath propagation
In radio communication, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflec ...
*
OFDM
In telecommunications, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a type of digital transmission and a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital commun ...
*
Rain fade Rain fade refers primarily to the absorption (optics), absorption of a microwave radio frequency (RF) signal by atmospheric rain, snow, or ice, and losses which are especially prevalent at frequencies above 11 GHz. It also refers to the degradation ...
*
Rayleigh fading Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of a propagation environment on a radio signal, such as that used by wireless devices.
Rayleigh fading models assume that the magnitude of a signal that has passed through such a transmission m ...
*
Thermal fade A thermal fade is a phenomenon of wireless signal degradation ( fading) caused by temperature and relative humidity factors. As the prevailing environmental conditions change (e.g., from hot to cool, humid to arid, or day to night), the electromagn ...
*
Two-Wave with Diffuse Power (TWDP) fading
*
Ultra-wideband
Ultra-wideband (UWB, ultra wideband, ultra-wide band and ultraband) is a radio technology that can use a very low energy level for short-range, high-bandwidth communications over a large portion of the radio spectrum. UWB has traditional applicati ...
*
Upfade
In wireless communications, fading is variation of the attenuation of a signal with various variables. These variables include time, geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a ...
References
Literature
* T.S. Rappaport, ''Wireless Communications: Principles and practice'', Second Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002.
* David Tse and Pramod Viswanath
''Fundamentals of Wireless Communication'' Cambridge University Press, 2005.
* M. Awad, K. T. Won
& Z. Li, ''An Integrative Overview of the Open Literature's Empirical Data on the Indoor Radiowave Channel's Temporal Properties,
IEEE Transactions on Antennas & Propagation, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 1451–1468, May 2008.
* P. Barsocchi,
Channel models for terrestrial wireless communications: a survey', CNR-
ISTI
The "Alessandro Faedo" Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dell'Informazione (''Institute of Information Science and Technologies'') is an institute of the Italian National Research Council (CNR). The institute is located in the CNR research area in ...
technical report, April 2006.
External links
Fading due to multipath effect
{{Audio broadcasting