Self-esteem Self-esteem is confidence in one's own worth or abilities. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself (for example, "I am loved", "I am worthy") as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. Smith and Mackie (2007) d ...

can be defined as how favorably individuals evaluate themselves. According to Leary, self-esteem is the relationship between one's real self and one's ideal self, feeding off of favorable behaviors.Leary, M.R. (1999) Making Sense of Self-Esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science 8 (1), 32–35. It refers to an individual's sense of their value or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes themselves.Adler, N & Stewart, J (2004) Self-Esteem. Research Network on SES & Health. Self-esteem is generally considered the evaluative component of the self-concept, a broader representation of the self that includes

cognitive Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...

and

behavioral Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as well ...

aspects as well as evaluative or

affective Affect, in psychology, refers to the underlying experience of feeling, emotion or mood. History The modern conception of affect developed in the 19th century with Wilhelm Wundt. The word comes from the German ''Gefühl'', meaning "feeling." ...

ones. There are several different proposals as to the functions of self-esteem. One proposal is that it satisfies the inherent need to feel good about oneself. Another is that it serves to minimize social rejection. Self-esteem is also known as a way for a person to remain dominant in relationships.Barkow, J. (1980). Prestige and self-esteem: A biosocial interpretation. In D. R. Omark, F. F. Strayer, & D. G. Freedman (Eds.), Dominance relations: An ethological view of human conflict and social interaction (pp. 319–332). New York: Garland STPM Press. Self-esteem is known to protect people from potential fear that arises from the prospect of death (terror management theory). Self-esteem helps motivate people to achieve their goals – high self-esteem leading to coping in situations and low self-esteem leading to avoidance.

Evolutionary perspectives

Sociometer theory

The sociometer theory was developed by

Mark Leary Mark Richard Leary, Ph.D. (born November 29, 1954) is a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University (Durham, North Carolina). His research has made significant contributions to the fields of social psychology and personality psycholo ...

to explain the functions of self-esteem. Leary and his colleagues stated that a sociometer is a measure of how a person is desirable by other people and this is oftentimes influenced through a person's self-esteem. They suggested that self-esteem has evolved to monitor one's

social acceptance Acceptance in human psychology is a person's assent to the reality of a situation, recognizing a process or condition (often a negative or uncomfortable situation) without attempting to change it or protest it. The concept is close in meaning to ...

and is used as a gauge for avoiding social devaluation and rejection. The sociometer theory is strongly grounded in evolutionary theories which suggest that survival depends on social acceptance for reasons such as

protection Protection is any measure taken to guard a thing against damage caused by outside forces. Protection can be provided to physical objects, including organisms, to systems, and to intangible things like civil and political rights. Although th ...

, reciprocal behaviours and most importantly

reproduction Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual or ...

. The monitoring of one's acceptance via self-esteem is therefore crucial in order to achieve these kinds of social interactions and be better able to compete for the social benefits of them. Kirkpatrick and Ellis expanded on Leary's work and suggested that the sociometer's function was not only to ensure that an individual was not excluded from their social group but also to rate the strength of the social group compared to other groups.

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) states that man is born with an intrinsic motivation to explore, absorb and master his surroundings and that true high self-esteem is reported when the basic psychological nutrients, or needs, of life (relatedness, competency and autonomy) are in balance.

Ethological perspective

The

ethological Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objective ...

perspective suggests that self-esteem is an

adaptation In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the po ...

that has evolved for the purpose of maintaining dominance in relationships. It is said that human beings have evolved certain mechanisms for monitoring dominance in order to facilitate reproductive behaviours such attaining a mate. Because attention and favorable reactions from others were associated with being dominant, feelings of self-esteem have also become associated with social approval and deference. From this perspective, the motive to evaluate oneself positively in evolutionary terms is to enhance one's relative dominance. Leary et al. tested the idea of dominance and social acceptance on self-esteem. Trait self-esteem appeared to be related to the degree to which participants felt accepted by specific people in their lives, but not to the degree to which participants thought those individuals perceived them as dominant. Acceptance and dominance appeared to have independent effects on self-esteem.Leary, M.R., Cottrell, C.A. & Phillips, M. (2001) Deconfounding the effects of dominance and social acceptance on self-esteem Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81(5), 898-909.

Terror management theory

The terror management theory (TMT), developed by

Sheldon Solomon Sheldon Solomon is an American social psychologist at Skidmore College in Saratoga Springs, New York. He is best known for developing terror management theory, along with Jeff Greenberg and Tom Pyszczynski. This theory is concerned with how hu ...

et al.,Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 93–159. which in relation to self-esteem states that having self-esteem helps protect individuals from the fear they experience at the prospect of their own death. It is suggested that people are constantly searching for ways to enhance their self-esteem in order to quell unconscious death anxiety. This internalisation of cultural values is also a key factor in terror management theory in which self-esteem is seen as a culturally based construction derived from integrating specific contingencies valued by society into one's own 'worldview'. High self-esteem promotes positive affect and personal growth, psychological well-being and coping as a buffer against anxiety in the knowledge of our eventual certain death, and reduces defensive anxiety related behaviour.Nayler, C. (2005) Theories of Self Esteem. Positive Psychology. Terror management theory, based primarily on the writings of

Ernest Becker Ernest Becker (September 27, 1924 – March 6, 1974) was an American cultural anthropologist and author of the 1974 Pulitzer Prize-winning book, '' The Denial of Death''. Biography Early life Ernest Becker was born in Springfield, Massachuset ...

and

Otto Rank Otto Rank (; ; né Rosenfeld; 22 April 1884 – 31 October 1939) was an Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and philosopher. Born in Vienna, he was one of Sigmund Freud's closest colleagues for 20 years, a prolific writer on psychoanalytic themes, ...

, posits that self-esteem is sought because it provides protection against the fear of death. From this perspective, the fear of death is rooted in an instinct for self-preservation that humans share with other species.

Success

Some researchers believe that having a high self-esteem facilitates goal achievement. Bednar, Wells, and Peterson proposed that self-esteem is a form of subjective feedback about the adequacy of the self. This feedback (self-esteem) is positive when the individual copes well with circumstances and is negative when avoiding threats. In turn, self-esteem affects subsequent goal achievement; high self-esteem increases coping, and low self-esteem leads to further avoidance.

Illusion of control

Illusion of control is the tendency for human beings to believe they can control, or at least influence, outcomes that they demonstrably have no influence over, a mindset often seen in those who gamble. However, for individuals who are not gamblers, Taylor and Brown suggest it may serve to be a function of self-esteem. Belief that there is a level of control over the situation a person is in, may lead to an increased level of motivation and performance in a self-regulating manner. In other words, one will work harder to become successful if they believe they have control over their success. A high self-esteem would be needed for this belief of control and so the need for a sense of control may be a function of self-esteem. When applying sociometer theory, it suggests that the illusion of control is an adaptive response in order to self-regulate behaviour to

cultural norms Social norms are shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups. Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into rules and laws. Social normative influences or soc ...

and thereby provide an individual with an increased level of self-esteem. In

social psychology Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people or by social norms. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the r ...

, the illusion of control is grouped with two other concepts and termed as the '

positive illusions Positive illusions are unrealistically favorable attitudes that people have towards themselves or to people that are close to them. Positive illusions are a form of self-deception or self-enhancement that feel good; maintain self-esteem; or avoid d ...