Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, is a

family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...

with an estimated 2,300 described

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

. The family contains some of the largest species of

moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...

s in the world. Notable members include the emperor moths, royal moths, and giant silk moths. Adults are characterized by large, lobed wings, heavy bodies covered in hair-like scales, and reduced mouthparts. They lack a

frenulum A frenulum (or frenum, plural: frenula or frena, from the Latin ''frēnulum'', "little bridle", the diminutive of ''frēnum'') is a small fold of tissue that secures the motion of a mobile organ in the body. In human anatomy Frenula on the h ...

, but the hindwings overlap the forewings to produce the effect of an unbroken wing surface.Tuskes PM, Tuttle JP, Collins MM (1996)
''The Wild Silk Moths of North America: A Natural History of the Saturniidae of the United States and Canada''. Pages 182-184.
Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Saturniids are sometimes brightly colored and often have translucent eyespots or "windows" on their wings.

Sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sexes of the same animal and/or plant species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most ani ...

varies by species, but males can generally be distinguished by their larger, broader antennae. Most adults possess wingspans between 1-6 in (2.5–15 cm), but some tropical species such as the Atlas moth (''

Attacus atlas ''Attacus atlas'', the Atlas moth, is a large Saturniidae, saturniid moth endemic to the forests of Asia. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''. Descri ...

'') may have wingspans up to 12 in (30 cm). Together with certain

Noctuidae The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths. They are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly changing, along with the other f ...

, Saturniidae contains the largest Lepidoptera and some of the largest

insects Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of j ...

alive today.

Distribution

The majority of saturniid species occur in wooded

tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...

subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...

regions, with the greatest diversity in the New World tropics and

Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...

, though they are found all over the world. About 12 described species live in Europe, one of which, the

emperor moth The Saturniinae or saturniines are a subfamily of the family Saturniidae. They are commonly known as emperor moths or wild silk moths. They are easily spotted by the eyespots on the upper surface of their wings. Some exhibit realistic eye-like m ...

, occurs in the

British Isles The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...

, and 68 described species live in North America, 42 of which reside north of Mexico and

Southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and Cultural area, cultural region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. It includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the second most po ...

Life cycle

Some saturniids are strictly

univoltine Voltinism is a term used in biology to indicate the number of broods or generations of an organism in a year. The term is most often applied to insects, and is particularly in use in sericulture, where silkworm varieties vary in their voltinism. ...

, producing only one generation a year, whereas others are multivoltine, producing more than one brood a year. Spring and summer broods hatch in a matter of weeks; autumn broods enter a state known as

diapause In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.Tauber, M.J., Tauber, C.A., Masaki, S. (1986) ''Seasonal Adaptations of Insects''. Oxford University Press I ...

and emerge the following spring. How the pupae know when to hatch early or hibernate is not yet fully understood, though research suggests day length during the fifth larval

instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ...

plays a major role, as well as cooling temperatures. Longer days may prompt pupae to develop early, while shorter days result in pupal diapause. The number of broods is flexible, and a single female may produce both fast-developing and slow-developing individuals, or they may produce different numbers of broods in different years or parts of the range. In some species, the spring and summer broods look different from each other; for example, the two

Saturniinae The Saturniinae or saturniines are a subfamily of the family Saturniidae. They are commonly known as emperor moths or wild silk moths. They are easily spotted by the eyespots on the upper surface of their wings. Some exhibit realistic eye-like ...

species '' Actias luna'' (the Luna moth) and '' Callosamia securifera'' both have certain genes which may or may not be activated depending upon differences in environmental conditions.

Eggs

Depending on the moth, a single female may lay up to 200 eggs on a chosen

host A host is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it. Host may also refer to: Places * Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County People *Jim Host (born 1937), American businessman * Michel Host ...

plant. Others are laid singly or in small groups.Scoble (1995) They are round, slightly flattened, smooth and translucent or whitish.

Larvae

Saturniid

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...

s are large (50 to 100 mm in the final instar), stout, and cylindrical. Most have tubercules that are often also spiny or hairy. Many are cryptic in coloration, with

countershading Countershading, or Thayer's law, is a method of camouflage in which an animal's coloration is darker on the top or upper side and lighter on the underside of the body. This pattern is found in many species of mammals, reptiles, birds, fish, a ...

disruptive coloration Disruptive coloration (also known as disruptive camouflage or disruptive patterning) is a form of camouflage that works by breaking up the outlines of an animal, soldier or military vehicle with a strongly contrasting pattern. It is often comb ...

to reduce detection, but some are more colorful. Some have

urticating hair Urticating hairs or urticating bristles are one of the primary defense mechanisms used by numerous plants, almost all New World tarantulas, and various lepidopteran caterpillars. ''Urtica'' is Latin for "nettle" (stinging nettles are in the genu ...

s. A few species have been noted to produce clicking sounds with the larval mandibles when disturbed. Examples: Luna moth ('' Actias luna'') and Polyphemus moth (''

Antheraea polyphemus ''Antheraea polyphemus'', the Polyphemus moth, is a North American member of the family Saturniidae, the giant silk moths. It is a tan-colored moth, with an average wingspan of 15 cm (6 in). The most notable feature of the moth is its ...

''). The clicks may serve as

aposematic Aposematism is the advertising by an animal to potential predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defences which make the prey difficult to kill and eat, such as toxicity, venom, foul taste o ...

warning signals to a regurgitation defense. Most are solitary feeders, but some are

gregarious Sociality is the degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups (gregariousness) and form cooperative societies. Sociality is a survival response to evolutionary pressures. For example, when a mother wasp ...

. The

Hemileucinae Hemileucinae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae. It is also known as venomous caterpillars. This subfamily contains the following genera: *'' Adetomeris'' Michener, 1949 *'' Ancistrota'' Hübner, 1819 *''Arias'' Lemaire, 1995 *'' Autome ...

are gregarious when young and have stinging hairs, those of ''

Lonomia The genus ''Lonomia'' is a moderate-sized group of fairly cryptic saturniid moths from South America, famous not for the adults, but for their highly venomous caterpillars, which are responsible for a few deaths each year, especially in southern ...

'' containing a poison which may kill a human. '' Arsenura armida'' is another well-known example, and are infamous for their large conspicuous masses during the day. Their coloration is not cryptic, instead exhibiting aposematism. The other caterpillars in this size range are almost universally

Sphingidae The Sphingidae are a family of moths (Lepidoptera) called sphinx moths, also colloquially known as hawk moths, with many of their caterpillars known as “hornworms”; it includes about 1,450 species. It is best represented in the tropics, bu ...

, which are seldom hairy and tend to have diagonal stripes on their sides. Many Sphingidae caterpillars bear a single curved horn on their hind end. These are actually not dangerous, but large-haired caterpillars should generally not be touched except by experts. Most saturniid larvae feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs. A few, particularly Hemileucinae such as '' Automeris louisiana'', '' A. patagonensis'', and '' Hemileuca oliviae'', feed on grasses. They

moult In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...

at regular intervals, usually four to six times before entering the pupal stage. Prior to pupation, a wandering stage occurs, and the caterpillar may change color, becoming more cryptic just before this stage.

Pupae

Most larvae spin a silken cocoon in the leaves of a preferred

plant or in leaf litter on the ground, or crevices in rocks and logs. While only moderately close relatives to the silkworm (''

Bombyx mori The domestic silk moth (''Bombyx mori''), is an insect from the moth family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of ''Bombyx mandarina'', the wild silk moth. The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of a silk moth. It is an economically imp ...

'') among the Lepidoptera, the cocoons of most larger saturniids can be gathered and used to make

silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...

fabric. However, larvae of some species – typically

Ceratocampinae Ceratocampinae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of moths in the world. Nota ...

, like the regal moth (''

Citheronia regalis ''Citheronia regalis'', the regal moth or royal walnut moth, is a North American moth in the family Saturniidae. The caterpillars are called hickory horned devils. The adult (imago) has a wingspan of . The species was first described by Johan Chri ...

'') and the imperial moth (''

Eacles imperialis ''Eacles imperialis'', the imperial moth, is a member of the family Saturniidae and subfamily Ceratocampinae. It is found mainly in the East of South America and North America, from the center of Argentina to south Canada. The species was first ...

''), burrow and pupate in a small chamber beneath the soil. This is common in the

and Hemileucinae. Unlike most silk moths, those that pupate underground do not use much silk in the construction. Once enclosed in the cocoon, the caterpillar sheds the larval skin and becomes a pupa, and the pupa undergoes

metamorphosis Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops including birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's body structure through cell growth and differentiation. Some inse ...

for about 14 days, at which point it either emerges or goes into diapause. During metamorphosis, respiratory systems will stay intact, the digestive system will dissolve, and reproductive organs will take form.

Adults

Adult females emerge with a complete set of mature

ova , abbreviated as OVA and sometimes as OAV (original animation video), are Japanese animated films and series made specially for release in home video formats without prior showings on television or in theaters, though the first part of an OVA s ...

and "call" males by emitting

pheromones A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...

(specific "calling" times vary by species). Males can detect these chemical signals up to a mile away with help from sensitive receptors located on the tips of their feather-like antennae. The males fly several miles in one night to locate a female and mate with her; females generally will not fly until after they have mated. Since the mouthparts of adult saturniids are vestigial and digestive tracts are absent, adults subsist on stored

lipids Lipids are a broad group of naturally-occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The functions of lipids include ...

acquired during the

larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...

l stage. As such, adult behavior is devoted almost entirely to

reproduction Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual or ...

, but the end result (due to lack of feeding) is a lifespan of a week or less once emerged from the pupa. One specific species in the family Saturniidae with a special mating pattern is ''

Callosamia promethea ''Callosamia promethea'', commonly known as the promethea silkmoth, is a member of the family Saturniidae, which contains approximately 1,300 species. It is also known as the spicebush silkmoth, which refers to is one of the promethea silkmoth's ...

'' (promethea silkmoth). Females will mate with multiple males and males will mate with multiple females. Females that mate with more than one male will produce 10% more eggs.

Importance to humans

file:Imperial-moth-camouflaged-with-leaf.jpg, 200px, Typical example of Saturniidae camouflage, ''

'' (imperial moth), next to a nearly identical yellow poplar (''Liriodendron tulipifera'') leaf A few species are important defoliator pest (organism), pests, including the orange-striped oakworm moth (''Anisota senatoria'') on oaks, the pandora pinemoth ('' Coloradia pandora'') on

pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accep ...

s and '' Hemileuca oliviae'' on range

grass Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...

es. Other species are of major commercial importance in

tussah Tussar silk (alternatively spelled as tussah, tushar, tassar, tussore, tasar, tussur, or tusser, and also known as (Sanskrit) ''kosa'' silk) is produced from larvae of several species of silkworms belonging to the moth genus '' Antheraea'', incl ...

and

wild silk Wild silks have been known and used in many countries from early times, although the scale of production is far smaller than that from cultivated silkworms. Silk cocoons and nests often resemble paper or cloth, and their use has arisen independent ...

production. These notably include the Chinese tussah moth (''

Antheraea pernyi ''Antheraea pernyi'', the Chinese (oak) tussar moth, Chinese tasar moth or temperate tussar moth, is a large moth in the family Saturniidae. The species was first described by Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville in 1855. '' Antheraea roylei'' is a ...

''), its hybridogenic descendant ''Antheraea'' × ''proylei'', and the ailanthus silkmoth (''

Samia cynthia ''Samia cynthia'', the ailanthus silkmoth, is a saturniid moth, used to produce silk fabric but not as domesticated as the silkworm, ''Bombyx mori''. The moth has very large wings of , with a quarter-moon shaped spot on both the upper and lower ...

''). Mopane worm (''

Gonimbrasia belina ''Gonimbrasia belina'' is a species of emperor moth which is native to the warmer parts of southern Africa. Its large edible caterpillar, known as the mopane worm, madora, amacimbi or masontja, feeds primarily but not exclusively on mopane tree ...

''), ''

Gonimbrasia zambesina ''Gonimbrasia'' is a genus of moths in the family Saturniidae first described by Arthur Gardiner Butler in 1878. Species *''Gonimbrasia abayana'' (Rougeot, 1977) *''Gonimbrasia alcestris'' Weymer, 1907 *''Gonimbrasia annulata'' Bouvier, 1936 *''G ...

'', the cabbage tree emperor moth (''

Bunaea alcinoe ''Bunaea alcinoe'', the cabbage tree emperor moth, is an African moth species belonging to the family Saturniidae. It was first described by Caspar Stoll in 1780. Larva The final instar is about in length and about in diameter. "Ground colou ...

''), '' Gynanisa maia'', ''

Imbrasia epimethea ''Imbrasia epimethea'' is a species of moth belonging to the family Saturniidae. It was first described by Dru Drury in 1773 from the Calabar coast. Description Upper side: antennae strongly pectinated; the extremities appearing like threads. ...

'', '' Imbrasia oyemensis'', '' Melanocera menippe'', '' Microgone cana'', '' Urota sinope'' and the pallid emperor moth ('' Cirina forda''). Some species of Saturniidae such as the mopane worm (''

'') are used as a food source. Most Saturniidae are harmless animals at least as adults, and in many cases at all stages of their lives. Thus, some of the more spectacular species – in particular ''

Antheraea ''Antheraea'' is a moth genus belonging to the family Saturniidae. The genus was erected by Jacob Hübner in 1819. Several species of this genus have caterpillars which produce wild silk of commercial importance. Commonly called "tussar silk", t ...

'' – can be raised by children or school classes as educational pets. The soft, silken cocoons make an interesting keepsake for pupils. Some, including the genus '' Automeris'', have urticating spines which sting. Caterpillars of the genus ''

'' produce a deadly

toxin A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849– ...

injected into the victim when it is touched.

Systematics and evolution

In terms of absolute numbers of species, the Saturniidae are most diverse in the

Neotropics The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropics, tropical Ecoregion#Terrestrial, terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperat ...

. Also, their most ancient subfamilies occur only in the Americas. Only the very "modern" Saturniidae are widely distributed across most parts of the world. Thus, it is quite safe to assume – even in the absence of a comprehensive

fossil record A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved in ...

– that the first Saturniidae originated in the Neotropical region. Note that at least two of the subfamilies included below are commonly treated as separate families (

Oxyteninae Oxyteninae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of moths in the world. Notable ...

and

Cercophaninae Cercophaninae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of moths in the world. Notab ...

). The following list arranges the subfamilies in the presumed

phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...

sequence, from the most ancient to the most advanced. * Subfamily

(3 genera, 35 species) * Subfamily

(4 genera, 10 species) * Subfamily

Arsenurinae Arsenurinae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of moths in the world. Notabl ...

(10 genera, 60 species, Neotropics) * Subfamily

(27 genera, 170 species, Americas) * Subfamily

(51 genera, 630 species, Americas) * Subfamily

Agliinae ''Aglia'' is a genus of moths in the family Saturniidae first described by Ochsenheimer in 1810. It is the only genus in the subfamily Agliinae. Species *''Aglia tau'' (Linnaeus, 1758) *''Aglia ingens'' Naumann, 2003 *''Aglia japonica'' Leech, ...

(1 genus, 3 species) * Subfamily Ludiinae (disputed) (8 genera, Africa) * Subfamily

Salassinae ''Salassa'' is a genus of moths in the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of moths in the world. N ...

(1 genus, 12 species, tropics) * Subfamily

(59 genera, 480 species, tropical and temperate regions worldwide) Grote nachtpauwoog - s0189V1962 - Van Gogh Museum

References

Bibliography

* Latham, P. (2008) ''Les chenilles comestibles et leurs plantes nourricières dans la province du Bas-Congo''
PDF fulltext
* Latham, P. (2015) ''Edible Caterpillars and Their Food Plants in Bas-Congo Province, Democratic Republic of Congo''
PDF fulltext
* Scoble, M.J. (1995): ''The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity'' (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

External links

Family Saturniidae (Wild Silk Moths)

Bombycoidea of Canada

Moths (Saturniidae) of the United States

Saturnia-Homepage

Images of Saturniidae species of New Zealand
{{Authority control Moth families