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The bronchioles or bronchioli (pronounced ''bron-kee-oh-lee'') are the smaller branches of the bronchial airways in the
lower respiratory tract The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory mucosa. Air is breathed in through the nose to th ...
. They include the terminal bronchioles, and finally the respiratory bronchioles that mark the start of the
respiratory zone The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory mucosa. Air is breathed in through the nose to t ...
delivering air to the gas exchanging units of the
alveoli Alveolus (; pl. alveoli, adj. alveolar) is a general anatomical term for a concave cavity or pit. Uses in anatomy and zoology * Pulmonary alveolus, an air sac in the lungs ** Alveolar cell or pneumocyte ** Alveolar duct ** Alveolar macrophage * ...
. The bronchioles no longer contain the cartilage that is found in the bronchi, or glands in their submucosa.


Structure

The
pulmonary lobule The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and most other animals, including some snails and a small number of fish. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of t ...
is the portion of the
lung The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and most other animals, including some snails and a small number of fish. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of t ...
ventilated by one bronchiole. Bronchioles are approximately 1 mm or less in diameter and their walls consist of
ciliated The cilium, plural cilia (), is a membrane-bound organelle found on most types of eukaryotic cell, and certain microorganisms known as ciliates. Cilia are absent in bacteria and archaea. The cilium has the shape of a slender threadlike project ...
cuboidal
epithelium Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellul ...
and a layer of smooth muscle. Bronchioles divide into even smaller bronchioles, called ''terminal'', which are 0.5 mm or less in diameter. Terminal bronchioles in turn divide into smaller respiratory bronchioles which divide into
alveolar ducts A pulmonary alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin ''alveolus'', "little cavity"), also known as an air sac or air space, is one of millions of hollow, distensible cup-shaped cavities in the lungs where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Al ...
. Terminal bronchioles mark the end of the conducting division of air flow in the
respiratory system The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies grea ...
while respiratory bronchioles are the beginning of the respiratory division where
gas exchange Gas exchange is the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface. For example, this surface might be the air/water interface of a water body, the surface of a gas bubble in a liquid, a gas-permeable membrane, or a ...
takes place. The diameter of the bronchioles plays an important role in air flow. The bronchioles change diameter to either increase or reduce air flow. An increase in diameter is called
bronchodilation A bronchodilator or broncholytic (although the latter occasionally includes secretory inhibition as well) is a substance that dilates the bronchi and bronchioles, decreasing resistance in the respiratory airway and increasing airflow to the lun ...
and is stimulated by either epinephrine or sympathetic nerves to increase air flow. A decrease in diameter is called
bronchoconstriction Bronchoconstriction is the constriction of the airways in the lungs due to the tightening of surrounding smooth muscle, with consequent coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath. Causes The condition has a number of causes, the most common be ...
, which is the tightening of the smooth muscle surrounding the bronchi and bronchioles due to and stimulated by
histamine Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses, as well as regulating physiological functions in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter for the brain, spinal cord, and uterus. Since histamine was discovered ...
, parasympathetic nerves, cold air, chemical irritants, excess mucus production, viral infections, and other factors to decrease air flow. Bronchoconstriction can result in clinical symptoms such as wheezing, chest tightness, and dyspnea, which are common features of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and chronic bronchitis.


Bronchioles

The
trachea The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a Cartilage, cartilaginous tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs, allowing the passage of air, and so is present in almost all air-breathing animals with lungs. The trachea extends ...
divides into the left main
bronchus A bronchus is a passage or airway in the lower respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. The first or primary bronchi pronounced (BRAN-KAI) to branch from the trachea at the carina are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchu ...
which supplies the left lung, and the right main bronchus which supplies the right lung. As they enter the lungs these primary bronchi branch into secondary bronchi known as
lobar bronchi A bronchus is a passage or airway in the lower respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. The first or primary bronchi pronounced (BRAN-KAI) to branch from the trachea at the carina are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. ...
which supply each lobe of the lung. These in turn give rise to tertiary bronchi (''tertiary'' meaning "third"), known as
segmental bronchi A bronchus is a passage or airway in the lower respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. The first or primary bronchi pronounced (BRAN-KAI) to branch from the trachea at the carina are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. ...
which supply each
bronchopulmonary segment A bronchopulmonary segment is a portion of lung supplied by a specific segmental bronchus and its vessels. These arteries branch from the pulmonary and bronchial arteries, and run together through the center of the segment. Veins and lymphatic v ...
. The segmentary bronchi subdivide into fourth order, fifth order and sixth order segmental bronchi before dividing into the bronchioles. The bronchioles are histologically distinct from the bronchi in that their walls do not have hyaline cartilage and they have
club cell Club cells, also known as bronchiolar exocrine cells, and formerly known as Clara cells, are low columnar/cuboidal cells with short microvilli, found in the small airways (bronchioles) of the lungs. Club cells are found in the ciliated simple epit ...
s in their epithelial lining. The
epithelium Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellul ...
of the bronchioles starts as a simple ciliated columnar epithelium and changes to simple ciliated cuboidal epithelium as the bronchioles decreases in size. The diameter of the bronchioles is often said to be less than 1 mm, though this value can range from 5 mm to 0.3 mm. As stated, these bronchioles do not have hyaline cartilage to maintain their patency. Instead, they rely on elastic fibers attached to the surrounding
lung The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and most other animals, including some snails and a small number of fish. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of t ...
tissue for support. The inner lining ( lamina propria) of these bronchioles is thin with no glands present, and is surrounded by a layer of smooth muscle. As the bronchioles get smaller they divide into terminal bronchioles. Each bronchiole divides into between 50 and 80 terminal bronchioles. These bronchioles mark the end of the
conducting zone The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory mucosa. Air is breathed in through the nose to ...
, which covers the first division through the sixteenth division of the respiratory tract.
Alveoli Alveolus (; pl. alveoli, adj. alveolar) is a general anatomical term for a concave cavity or pit. Uses in anatomy and zoology * Pulmonary alveolus, an air sac in the lungs ** Alveolar cell or pneumocyte ** Alveolar duct ** Alveolar macrophage * ...
only become present when the conducting zone changes to the
respiratory zone The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory mucosa. Air is breathed in through the nose to t ...
, from the sixteenth through the twenty-third division of the tract.


Terminal bronchioles

The terminal bronchioles are the most distal segment of the conducting zone. They branch off the lesser bronchioles. Each of the terminal bronchioles divides to form respiratory bronchioles which contain a small number of alveoli. Terminal bronchioles are lined with simple ciliated cuboidal epithelium containing
club cell Club cells, also known as bronchiolar exocrine cells, and formerly known as Clara cells, are low columnar/cuboidal cells with short microvilli, found in the small airways (bronchioles) of the lungs. Club cells are found in the ciliated simple epit ...
s. Club cells are non-ciliated, rounded protein-secreting cells. Their secretions are a non-sticky, proteinaceous compound to maintain the airway in the smallest bronchioles. The secretion, called
pulmonary surfactant Pulmonary surfactant is a surface-active complex of phospholipids and proteins formed by type II alveolar cells. The proteins and lipids that make up the surfactant have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic In chemistry, hydrophobicity is t ...
, reduces surface tension, allowing for bronchioles to expand during inspiration and keeping the bronchioles from collapsing during expiration. Club cells are a
stem cell In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the earliest type o ...
of the
respiratory system The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies grea ...
, and also produce
enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. A ...
s that detoxify substances dissolved in the respiratory fluid.


Respiratory bronchioles

The respiratory bronchioles are the narrowest airways of the lungs, 0.5 mm across. The
bronchi A bronchus is a passage or airway in the lower respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. The first or primary bronchi pronounced (BRAN-KAI) to branch from the trachea at the carina are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. ...
divide many times before evolving into the bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles deliver air to the exchange surfaces of the lungs. They are interrupted by
alveoli Alveolus (; pl. alveoli, adj. alveolar) is a general anatomical term for a concave cavity or pit. Uses in anatomy and zoology * Pulmonary alveolus, an air sac in the lungs ** Alveolar cell or pneumocyte ** Alveolar duct ** Alveolar macrophage * ...
which are thin walled
evagination Endodermic evagination relates to the inner germ layers of cells of the very early embryo, from which is formed the lining of the digestive tract, of other internal organs, and of certain glands, implies the extension of a layer of body tissue to ...
s.
Alveolar ducts A pulmonary alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin ''alveolus'', "little cavity"), also known as an air sac or air space, is one of millions of hollow, distensible cup-shaped cavities in the lungs where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Al ...
are side branches of the respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles are lined by ciliated columnar epithelium along with some non-ciliated cells called
club cells Club cells, also known as bronchiolar exocrine cells, and formerly known as Clara cells, are low columnar/cuboidal cells with short microvilli, found in the small airways (bronchioles) of the lungs. Club cells are found in the ciliated simple epit ...
.


Clinical significance

Bronchospasm Bronchospasm or a bronchial spasm is a sudden constriction of the muscles in the walls of the bronchioles. It is caused by the release (degranulation) of substances from mast cells or basophils under the influence of anaphylatoxins. It causes di ...
, a potentially life-threatening situation, occurs when the smooth muscular tissue of the bronchioles constricts, severely narrowing their diameter. The most common cause of this is asthma. Bronchospasm is commonly treated by oxygen therapy and
bronchodilator A bronchodilator or broncholytic (although the latter occasionally includes secretory inhibition as well) is a substance that dilates the bronchi and bronchioles, decreasing resistance in the respiratory airway and increasing airflow to the lung ...
s such as
albuterol Salbutamol, also known as albuterol and sold under the brand name Ventolin among others, is a medication that opens up the medium and large airways in the lungs. It is a short-acting β2 adrenergic receptor agonist which works by causing rel ...
. Diseases of the bronchioles include
asthma Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, cou ...
, bronchiolitis obliterans,
respiratory syncytial virus Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), also called human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and human orthopneumovirus, is a common, contagious virus that causes infections of the respiratory tract. It is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. ...
infections, and
influenza Influenza, commonly known as "the flu", is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These symptoms ...
.


Inflammation

The medical condition of inflammation of the bronchioles is termed
bronchiolitis Bronchiolitis is inflammation of the small airways in the lungs. Acute bronchiolitis is due to a viral infection usually affecting children younger than two years of age. Symptoms may include fever, cough, runny nose, wheezing, and breathing ...
.


Additional images

Image:Tertiary bronchus.JPG, Cross sectional cut of primary bronchiole Image:illu_quiz_lung05.jpg ,


References


Further reading

* Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy & Physiology: the Unity of Form and Function. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2007. * Dudek, Ronald W. ''High-Yield Histology'', 3rd ed. (2004). * Gartner, Leslie P. and James L. Hiatt. ''Color Atlas of Histology'', 3rd ed. (2000). * Gartner, Leslie P. and James L. Hiatt. ''Color Textbook of Histology'' (2001).


External links

* *
Diagram at davidson.edu


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