History
Early Rattanakosin period (1782–1855)
Foundation of Bangkok
Chakri ruled under the name Ramathibodi, but was generally known as King Rama I, moved the royal seat fromBurmese wars
The Burmese continued to pose the major threat to Siamese state of existence. In 1785, King Bodawpaya of the BurmeseEastern fronts: Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam
When the Siamese forces took Vientiane in 1779 in Thonburi period, all three Lao kingdoms of Luang Phrabang,Malay Peninsula and Contacts with the West
After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Northern Malay states that used to pay ''bunga mas'' tributes to Siam were freed temporarily from Siamese domination. In 1786, after expelling Burmese invaders from Southern Siam, Prince Sura Singhanat declared that Northern Malay sultanates should resume tributary obligations as it had used to be during the Ayutthaya times. Kedah andEarly Modern Siam (1855–1905)
Bowring Treaty and Siamese Missions to Europe
Reformer (1868–1910)
Rama IV died in 1868, and was succeeded by his 15-year-old son Chulalongkorn, who reigned as Rama V and is now known as Rama the Great. Rama V was the first Siamese king to have a full Western education, having been taught by a British governess, Anna Leonowens – whose place in Siamese history has been fictionalized as ''The King and I''. At first Rama V's reign was dominated by the conservative regent, Chaophraya Si Suriyawongse, but when the king came of age in 1873 he soon took control. He created a Privy Council and a Council of State, a formal court system and budget office. He announced that slavery would be gradually abolished and debt-bondage restricted. At first the princes and conservatives successfully resisted the king's reform agenda, but as the older generation was replaced by younger, Western-educated princes, resistance faded. He found powerful allies in his brothers Prince Chakkraphat, whom he made finance minister, Prince Damrong Rajanubhab, Damrong, who organized interior government and education, and his brother-in-law Prince Devrawongse, foreign minister for 38 years. In 1887 Devrawonge visited Europe to study governmental systems. On his recommendation the king established cabinet government, an audit office, and an education department. The semi-autonomous status of Chiang Mai was ended and the army was reorganized and modernized. In 1893 French authorities in Indochina used a minor border dispute to provoke a crisis. French gunboats appeared at Bangkok and demanded the cession of Lao territories east of the Mekong. The king appealed to the British, but the British minister told the king to settle on whatever terms he could get. The king had no choice but to comply. Britain's only gesture was an agreement with France guaranteeing the integrity of the rest of Siam. In exchange, Siam had to give up its claim to the Tai-speaking Shan region of northeastern Burma to the British. The French, however, continued to pressure Siam, and in 1906–1907 they manufactured another crisis. This time Siam had to concede French control of territory on the west bank of the Mekong opposite Luang Prabang and around Champasak (town), Champasak in southern Laos, as well as western Cambodia. The British interceded to prevent more French pressure on Siam, but their price, in 1909 was the acceptance of British sovereignty over of Kedah,Modern Siam (1905–1932)
From kingdom to modern nation (1910–1925)
One of Rama V's reforms was to introduce a Western-style law of royal succession, so in 1910 he was peacefully succeeded by his son Vajiravudh, who reigned as Rama VI. He had been educated at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, Sandhurst military academy and at University of Oxford, Oxford, and was an anglicized Edwardian gentleman. Indeed, one of Siam's problems was the widening gap between the Westernized royal family and upper aristocracy and the rest of the country. It took another 20 years for Western education to permeate the bureaucracy and the army. There had been some political reform under Rama V, but the king was still an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch, who acted as the head of the cabinet and staffed all the agencies of the state with his own relatives. Vajiravudh knew that the rest of the "new" nation could not be excluded from government forever, but he had no faith in Western-style democracy. He applied his observations of the success of the British monarchy ruling India, appearing more in public and instituting more royal ceremonies. However, Rama VI also carried on his father's modernization plan. Bangkok became more and more the capital of the new nation of Siam. Rama VI's government began several nationwide development projects, despite financial hardship. New roads, bridges, State Railway of Thailand, railways, Royal Thai Army#Army Medical Department, hospitals and schools mushroomed throughout the country with funds from Bangkok. Newly created "viceroys" were appointed to the newly restructured "regions", or ''monthon'' (circles), as king's agents supervising administrative affairs in the provinces. The king established the ''Wild Tiger Corps'', or ''Kong Suea Pa'' (), a paramilitary organization of Siamese of "good character" united to further the nation's cause. He also created a junior branch which continues today as the National Scout Organization of Thailand. The king spent much time on the development of the movements as he saw it as an opportunity to create a bond between himself and loyal citizens. It was also a way to single out and honor his favourites. At first the Wild Tigers were drawn from the king's personal entourage, but an enthusiasm among the population arose later. Of the adult movement, a German observer wrote in September 1911: "This is a troop of volunteers in black uniform, drilled in a more or less military fashion, but without weapons. The British Scouting, Scouts are apparently the paradigm for the Tiger Corps. In the whole country, at the most far-away places, units of this corps are being set up. One would hardly recognize the quiet and phlegmatic Siamese." The paramilitary movement largely disappeared by 1927, but was revived and evolved into the Village Scouts, Volunteer Defense Corps, also called the Village Scouts. () Vajiravudh's style of government differed from that of his father. In the beginning, the king continued to use his father's team and there was no sudden break in the daily routine of government. Much of the running of daily affairs was therefore in the hands of experienced and competent men. To them and their staff Siam owed many progressive steps, such as the development of a national plan for the education of the whole populace, the setting up of clinics where free vaccination was given against smallpox, and the continuing expansion of railways. However, senior posts were gradually filled with members of the king's coterie when a vacancy occurred through death, retirement, or resignation. By 1915, half the cabinet consisted of new faces. Most notable was Chao Phraya Yomarat's presence and Prince Damrong's absence. He resigned from his post as Minister of the Interior officially because of ill health, but in actuality because of friction between himself and the king.World War I
In 1917 Siam declared war on German Empire, Germany and Austria-Hungary, mainly to be favor with the British and the French. Siam's taken participation in World War I secured it a seat at the Versailles Peace Conference, and Foreign Minister Devawongse used this opportunity to argue for the repeal of 19th century treaties and the restoration of full Siamese sovereignty. The United States obliged in 1920, while France and Britain delayed until 1925. This victory gained the king some popularity, but it was soon undercut by discontent over other issues, such as his extravagance, which became more noticeable when a sharp postwar recession hit Siam in 1919. There was also concern that the king had no son, which undermined the stability of the monarchy due to the absence of heirs. Thus when Rama VI died suddenly in 1925, aged only 44, the monarchy was in a weakened state. He was succeeded by his younger brother Prajadhipok.Transition to 1932 revolution
Unlike other states ofThe end of absolute rule (1925–1932)
Unprepared for his new responsibilities, all Prajadhipok had in his favor was a lively intelligence, a charming diplomacy in his dealings with others, modesty and industrious willingness to learn, and the somewhat tarnished, but still potent, allure of the crown. Unlike his predecessor, the king diligently read virtually all state papers that came his way, from ministerial submissions to petitions by citizens. Within half a year, only three of Vajiravudh's twelve ministers stayed put, the rest having been replaced by members of the royal family. On the one hand, these appointments brought back men of talent and experience; on the other, it signaled a return to royal oligarchy. The king obviously wanted to demonstrate a clear break with the discredited sixth reign, and the choice of men to fill the top positions appeared to be guided largely by a wish to restore a Chulalongkorn-type government. The legacy that Prajadhipok received from his elder brother were problems of the sort that had become chronic in the Sixth Reign. The most urgent of these was the economy: the finances of the state were in chaos, the budget heavily in deficit, and the royal accounts a nightmare of debts and questionable transactions. That the rest of the world was deep in the Great Depression following World War I did not help the situation either. Virtually the first act of Prajadipok as king entailed an institutional innovation intended to restore confidence in the monarchy and government, the creation of the Supreme Council of State of Siam, Supreme Council of the State. This privy council was made up of a number of experienced and extremely competent members of the royal family, including the longtime Minister of the Interior (and Chulalongkorn's right-hand man) Prince Damrong. Gradually these princes arrogated increasing power by monopolizing all the main ministerial positions. Many of them felt it their duty to make amends for the mistakes of the previous reign, but it was not generally appreciated. With the help of this council, the king managed to restore stability to the economy, although at a price of making a significant number of the civil servants redundant and cutting the salary of those that remained. This was obviously unpopular among the officials, and was one of the trigger events for the coup of 1932. Prajadhipok then turned his attention to the question of future politics in Siam. Inspired by the British example, the king wanted to allow the common people to have a say in the country's affairs by the creation of a parliament. A proposed constitution was ordered to be drafted, but the king's wishes were rejected by his advisers, who felt that the population was not yet ready for democracy.Revolution
In 1932, with the country deep in depression, the Supreme Council opted to introduce cuts in spending, including the military budget. The king foresaw that these policies might create discontent, especially in the army, and he therefore convened a special meeting of officials to explain why the cuts were necessary. In his address he stated the following, "I myself know nothing at all about finances, and all I can do is listen to the opinions of others and choose the best... If I have made a mistake, I really deserve to be excused by the people of Siam." No previous monarch of Siam had ever spoken in such terms. Many interpreted the speech not as Prajadhipok apparently intended, namely as a frank appeal for understanding and cooperation. They saw it as a sign of his weakness and evidence that a system which perpetuated the rule of fallible autocrats should be abolished. Serious political disturbances were threatened in the capital, and in April the king agreed to introduce a constitution under which he would share power with a prime minister. This was not enough for the radical elements in the army, however. On 24 June 1932, while the king was at the seaside, the Bangkok garrison mutinied and seized power, led by a group of 49 officers known as "Khana Ratsadon". Thus ended 800 years of Monarchy of Thailand#Origin, absolute monarchy. Thai political history was little researched by Western Southeast Asian scholars in the 1950s and 1960s. Thailand, as the only nominally "native" Southeast Asian polity to escape colonial conquest, was deemed to be relatively more stable as compared with other newly independent states in Southeast Asia. It was perceived to have retained enough continuity from its "traditions", such as the institution of the monarchy, to have escaped from the chaos and troubles caused by decolonisation and to resist the encroachment of revolutionary communism. By implication, this line of argument suggests the 1932 revolution was nothing more than a coup that simply replaced the absolute monarchy and its aristocracy with a commoner elite class made up of Western-educated generals and civilian bureaucrats and essentially that there was little that was revolutionary about this event. David K. Wyatt, for instance, described the period of Thai history from 1910 to 1941 as "essentially the political working out of the social consequences of the reforms of Chulalongkorn's reign". The 1932 revolution was generally characterised as the inevitable outcome of "natural consequences of forces set in motion by Rama IV and Rama V".Government
Government and Bureaucracy
Central government
In the early period, Rattanakosin inherited most of the bureaucratic apparatus from the late Ayutthaya. The Siamese royal court bureaucracy centred on the six ministries. The two top prime ministers of the court were ''Samuha Nayok'' (), the Prime Minister of Northern Siam who oversaw the ''Mahatthai'' or Ministry of Interior, and ''Samuha Kalahom'' (), the Prime Minister of Southern Siam who oversaw the ''Kalahom'' or Ministry of Military. Below them were the Four Ministries or ''Chatusadom'' (); * ''Krom Vieng'' () or ''Krom Phra Nakhonban'' (), the Police Bureau, was headed by Chao Phraya Yommaraj () * ''Kromma Wang'' (), the Ministry of Palatial Affairs, was headed by Chao Phraya Thamma * ''Krom Khlang'' (), the Ministry of Trade and Treasury, was headed by Chao Phraya Phrakhlang () ** ''Kromma Tha'' (), the 'Department of Piers', dealt with foreign trade and affairs ** ''Phra Khlang Sinkha'' (), the Royal Warehouse, responsible for the tariff collection from foreign trade * ''Krom Na'' (), the Ministry of Agriculture, was headed by Chao Phraya Pollathep () Additionally there were other subsidiary departments, for example; * ''Krom Suratsawadi'' (), the Department of Conscription * ''Phra Khlang Maha Sombat'' (), the Royal Treasury * ''Krom Sankhakari'' (), the Department of Monastic Affairs Government officials were ranked by ''Bandasak'' () levels and the ''Sakdina'' (). The ''Bandasak'' levels determined the official's position in the bureaucratic hierarchy (see Thai nobility). The ''Bandasak'' levels were, in descending order; ''Chaophraya'', ''Phraya'', ''Phra'', ''Luang'', ''Khun'', ''Meun'', ''Phan'' and ''Nai''. The two top ministers, ''Samuha Nayok'' and ''Samuha Kalahom'', were always ranked ''Chaophraya'' in the Bangkok period. The Four Ministers of ''Chatusadom'' were initially ranked ''Phraya'' in the reign of King Rama I, with some exceptions. They were later elevated to ''Chaophraya'' in subsequent reigns. ''Sakdina'' is the theoretical amount of land and numerical rank accorded to an official for his position in bureaucracy, which determined the amount of production received and the severity of punishment for crime. The ''Sakdina'' of each every single government position was described in the Three Seals Law. For example, the ''Sakdina'' of ''Samuha Nayok'', ''Samuha Kalahom'' and the Four Ministers of ''Chatusadom'' were 10,000 Rai (unit), ''rai'' each.Regional government
Cities and towns in 'Siam proper', which correspond roughly to modern Central Thailand, Central and Southern Thailand, were organized into the 'Hierarchy of Cities', in which small towns were under the jurisdiction of larger cities. There were four levels of cities, in descending order; the ''Mueang Ek'' (), ''Mueang Tho'' (), ''Mueang Tri'' () and ''Mueang Chattawa'' (). ''Mueang Ek'' was the highest level of city representing regional centre. The ''Mueang Ek''s in the Rattanakosin period were Nakhon Si Thammarat, which was the centre of Southern Siam, andLaw and judiciary
Majority of the Siamese legal corpus were lost in the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767. Siamese authorities then relied on scattered legal manuscripts to operate. In 1804, a woman who was in relationship with another man successfully sued for divorce from her husband. The husband complained that the court ruling was unjustified and appealed the case to King Rama I. King Rama I then opinioned that the existing laws of Siam were corrupted and ordered the recompilation of Ayutthaya laws to rectify and cleanse or ''chamra'' the laws of any distortions. The physical copies were imprinted with the three seals of ''Mahatthai'' (north), ''Kalahom'' (south) and ''Phrakhlang'' (treasury), signifying that the laws affected kingdom-wide and became known as the Three Seals Law that served the Siamese kingdom for the next century. The Siamese laws had taken the Indic Manusmriti, Mānu-Dharmaśāstra as its model. The king was the sole legislator of the kingdom. His words were recorded and inscribed to become laws. There was no single unified judiciary department as cases were distributed among the judging courts of each ministries according to the concerning matter. For example, foreign trade disputes belonged to the ''Kromma Tha'' or Trade Ministry and land disputes belonged to ''Krom Na'' or Ministry of Agriculture. The ''Mahatthai'' maintained the appeal court that settled cases from the primary courts. Unsettled cases from outlying cities were also appealed to Bangkok. When the appeal court failed to settle the case, it would be forwarded to the king himself. Presiding over the Supreme Royal Court was a part of royal daily routines. Siamese law court involved two sets of legal personnel: the ''Lukkhun'' () or council of twelve Bramanistic jurors who possessed legal knowledge and acted only as the advisory body of consultants but held no power to judge the cases and ''Tralakarn'' () or layman judges who carried out actual judgements under suggestions from the ''Lukkhun''. The ''Nakhonban'' or Police Bureau dealt specifically with criminal cases including murder, robbery and adultery. The ''Nakhonban'' employed the trial by ordeal or judiciary tortures including compression of skull, hammering of nails and entering a large rattan ball to be kicked by an elephant. These torture methods were known as the ''Nakhonban'' creed () and were used only in certain circumstances in criminal cases. Sometimes when the issues were not settled, defendants were made to dive into water or walk into fire to prove their guilty or innocence. Westerners were particularly horrified by these methods of judiciary tortures and sought to dissociate themselves from traditional Siamese inquisition, resulting in the granting ofDiplomacy
Qing China
Siam had entered the Tributary system of China, Chinese tributary relationship system, in which the Chinese imperial court recognized the rulers of Siam to maintain relations, since Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods. Siamese missions to the Chinese imperial court were called ''Chim Kong'' (進貢 Pe̍h-ōe-jī, POJ: chìn-kòng "to offer gifts"). The Chinese Emperors conferred the ''Hong'' investitures (封 Peng'im: hong1 ) on Siamese monarchs as ''Siamlo Kok Ong'' (暹羅國王). Siamese kings did not consider themselves as submitted tributary rulers but rather as amicable gift exchangers, while the Chinese court would construe this as vassal homage from Siam. Entering the tributary relationship with China permitted the Siamese royal court to conduct lucrative commercial activities there. The Siamese court presented commodities ascribed by the imperial court as tributes to the Chinese Emperor who, in return, granted luxurious goods, which were more valuable than Siamese presented goods, in exchange. The Siamese mission to China was a profitable expenditure in itself in the view of Siamese royal court. The tributary relation with China did not have political implications in Siam as the Beijing court wielded little to no influence over Siam. Kings of the Chakri dynasty of the early Rattanakosin period continued the tradition of ''Chim Kong''. The Siamese court of Bangkok was officially recognized and invested title by the Qing court in 1787. Siam sent tributes to China once every three years. The Chakri kings used the family name "Zheng" (鄭), which was the family name of King Taksin, in diplomatic letters to China. Chinese imperial court granted the ''Lokto'' Seal (駱駝 ) to the Siamese king in recognition. The jaded ''Lokto'' Seal bore Chinese letters ''Siamlo Kok Ong'' with the handle sculpted in the shape of camel. On each mission, the Siamese envoys presented three letters to the Chinese court; * The royal letter to the Chinese Emperor inscribed on a golden plate * The ''Khamhap'' (勘合 ) letter bearing the ''Lokto'' Seal and Siamese Royal Seal * The letter from ''Phrakhlang'' the Minister of Trade with the Lotus Seal of Ministry of Trade and the Royal Seal The ''Lokto'' Seal served as confirmation of validity of the Siamese mission. Siamese envoys to China were hailed from the ''Kromma Tha Sai'' ( 'Department of the Left Pier') that dealt with Chinese affairs and were usually Chinese-speakers themselves. The mission consisted of three dignitaries; the First Envoy ''Rachathut'', the Second Envoy ''Upathut'', the Third Envoy ''Trithut'' and two translators; ''Thongsue'' and ''Pansue''. The Siamese mission took maritime journey to Guangzhou, where Chinese officials verified the ''Lokto''. The Siamese mission then proceeded by land to Beijing. By the 1830s, the Chinese junk trades declined. In 1839, Daoguang Emperor, Emperor Daoguang ordered Siam to send tributes once every four years instead of three years. The Treaty of Nanking of 1842, in the aftermath of First Opium War, abolished the Canton System, Canton system and the British took over maritime trade in Asia. The Sino-Siamese trades shifted from junk trades based on the ''Chim Kong'' to the free trades using British cargoes. Upon his ascension, King Mongkut dispatched a ''Chim Kong'' mission to China in 1851. The mission was rejected at Guangzhou on the grounds that Xianfeng Emperor, Emperor Xienfeng was in mourning for his father Emperor Daoguang. Another mission was re-dispatched in 1852. However, the mission was robbed by local Chinese bandits and the ''Pansue'' translator was killed. King Mongkut then asserted that the ''Chim Kong'' tradition might give misguided impression that Siam had been under political suzerainty of China and was inappropriate for an independent sovereign kingdom to conduct. King Mongkut then ordered the ''Chim Kong'' to be discontinued in 1863. The ''Chim Kong'' of 1852 was the last Siamese tribute mission to China in history.Kandyan Kingdom
The Sri Lankan Kingdom of Kandy or Kingdom of Kandy, Kandyan Kingdom, which also followed Theravada Buddhism as state religion, established diplomatic religious relation with Siam in 1753 in Ayutthaya period when Singhalese envoys arrived requesting for Siamese Buddhist monks to revitalize Buddhism in Sri Lanka. In 1815, King Rama II dispatched the religious mission to Sri Lanka. The mission to Lanka was under the responsibility of Siamese monkhood. Venerable and learned monks were selected to embark on the mission. Chao Phraya Nakhon Noi, Phraya Nakhon Noi arranged for the monks to board an Indian ship from Nakhon Si Thammarat to Sri Lanka. By that time, Sri Lanka had no king as the Singhalese Radala nobility had agreed to the British rule in the Kandyan Convention. The Siamese religious envoys reached Kandy, which was called "Singkhan" () in Thai language, in 1815. They were received by the native Singhalese Radala and monkhood and worshipped the Temple of the Tooth at Kandy and other religious sites. Siamese monks were also taken to visit Robert Brownrigg the British governor of Ceylon in Colombo. The envoys left Sri Lanka in 1816 and returned to Siam. King Mongkut sent another religious mission to Sri Lanka in 1852. The mission reached Galle, where they were received by the native Singhalese. Siamese monks delivered sermons to the Singhalese people. However, the Siamese monks failed to obtain the permission of British colonial government in time to travel to Kandy to worship the Temple of the Tooth and returned.Portugal
After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the surviving Portuguese community moved to settle on the West bank of Chao Phraya River in Thonburi in the Kudi Chin district around the Santa Cruz Church, Bangkok, Santa Cruz church. In 1786, a Portuguese envoy named Antonio de Veesent from Macau arrived in Bangkok, bearing the royal letter of Maria I of Portugal, Queen Maria I of Portugal from Lisbon. King Rama I offered permission to open a trading post in Bangkok in exchange for firearms supply. In 1820, Carlos Manuel de Silviera arrived from the Portuguese Macau. A treaty was signed in which King Rama II granted a piece of land on the East bank of Chao Phraya river that used to be the residence ofBritish Empire
In 1821, Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings, Marquess of Hastings the Governor-General of India sentUnited States
Edmund Roberts (diplomat), Edmund Roberts was appointed by President Andrew Jackson as the American envoy to the Far East in 1831. After visiting Canton and Danang, Roberts arrived in Bangkok in 1833 on the US Sloop-of-war USS Peacock (1813)#Diplomatic missions, ''Peacock''. Roberts met and negotiated with Prayurawongse, Chao Phraya Phrakhlang. The draft of Siamese–American Treaty of Amity and Commerce, Treaty of Amity and Commerce, which became known as the 'Roberts Treaty', was presented to King Rama III in 1833. The Roberts Treaty was the first treaty between United States and an Asian nation and Siam became the first Asian nation to come into official relations with United States. The content of the treaty was largely in the same manner as the British Burney Treaty, in which the Americans were granted the rights of free trade but were still subjected to ''Phra Khlang Sinkha'' measurement duties collection. The difference between the American Roberts Treaty and British Burney Treaty was that the United States required to be granted the same prospective benefits as other Western nations. If Siam reduced the tariffs of any other Western nations, the United States would be eligible for the same rights. If Siam allowed any other Western nations but the Portuguese to establish a consulate, the Americans would also be allowed. The treaty also stipulated that if an American failed to pay Siamese debts or bankrupted, the Siamese would not punish or hold the American debtor as slave. Like the British, the Americans later demanded the amendments of the initial treaty. Joseph Balestier, a Frenchman who became American diplomat, arrived in Bangkok in 1850 to propose the amendments. Phrakhlang, the usual receiver of Western envoys, had been away conducting the ''Sak Lek'' in Southern Siam. Phrakhlang's younger brother Phraya Siphiphat took over the task of receiving Joseph Balestier. However, according to Thai chronicles, Balestier behaved unceremoniously by demanding to meet the king directly. Siphiphat asserted that himself was a delegate of the king and agreements should be reached before presentation to the king. Balestier reportedly picked the presidential letter out of his pocket and handed it directly to Siphiphat. After strong verbal exchanges, Balestier stormed out of Siphiphat's residence. When Phrakhlang returned to Bangkok, Balestier complained to Phrakhlang that his brother had offended him as an envoy of the United States. Eventually, Balestier left Bangkok empty-handed.Military
The Burmese Wars and the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 prompted the Siamese to adopt new tactics. Less defensive strategies and effective manpower control contributed to Siamese military successes against her traditional enemies. Acquisition of Western flintlock firearms through diplomatic and private purchases was crucial. In wartime, all court officials and ministers, civilian or military, were expected to lead armies in battle. The bureaucratic apparatus would turn into war command hierarchy with the king as supreme commander and ministers becoming war generals. There was a specific martial law regulating the war conducts. A general defeated by the enemy in battlefield would be, in theory, subjected to death penalty. In the offensives, auspicious date and time were set to begin marching. Brahmanistic ceremony of cutting trees with similar names to the enemy was performed, while the army marched through a gate with Brahmins blessing with Holy water#Hinduism, sacred water. Siamese armies in the early Bangkok period consisted mostly of conscripted militias, who might or might not go through military training. There was also professional standing army – the ''Krom Asa'' () – but its role in warfare was largely diminished in comparison to the Ayutthaya period due to the manpower shortage. The ''Phrai'' militia infantry, who were armed with melee weapons such as swords, spears or javelin or matchlock firearms formed the backbone of Siamese armies. Regiments also indicated social hierarchy, with nobility on horseback and the king on an elephant, while commoners were on foot. ''Krom Phra Asawarat'' () was responsible for horse-keeping for royal elite troops, while ''Krom Khotchaban'' () was responsible for taking care of royal elephants. There were ethnic regiments that were assigned with special tasks. For example, the ''Krom Asa Cham'' (), the Muslim Chams, Cham-Malays (ethnic group), Malay regiment that took responsibilities in naval warfare and the Mon regiment that served as Burmese-Siamese border patrol. The Mon regiment played crucial role in surveillance of the borders with Burma due to their familiarity with the area and would provide timely alerts of imminent Burmese incursion to the Bangkok court. The members of the Mon regiment were usually Mon immigrants who had been escaping the Burmese rule into Siam since the Thonburi period.Weapons and artillery
The Portuguese introduced matchlock arquebus to Siam in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese and other Europeans filled in positions in the arquebusier regiment known as ''Krom Farang Maen Peun'' (). Though the Siamese were unable to produce firearms, European traders provided unrelenting sources of firearms. Captured enemy ammunition was another source of supply. Firearms usage later spread to native Siamese soldiers who received training from European arquebusiers. The Siamese were exposed to flintlock muskets from French soldiers visiting Siam in the seventeenth century during the reign of Narai, King Narai. Flintlock muskets produced twice firing frequency in comparison to matchlock arquebus. However, like other kingdoms in the Far East, flintlock firearms remained rare commodity and were acquired through purchases from Westerners. Francis Light the British merchant, who had been residing in Thalang or Phuket Province, Phuket Island from 1765 to 1786 when he moved toNavy
Before 1852, Siam did not have a standing navy. Most of the Mainland Southeast Asia, Continental Southeast Asian warfare was land-based or riverine. When a naval warfare was initiated, the authority would gather native Siamese riverine barges and, if possible, Western galleons or Chinese junks. The Siamese relied on either Chinese or Malay junks for seafaring activities. Commercial and war vessels were used interchangeably. The navy was manned by the ''Krom Asa Cham'' or the Cham-Malay regiment who possessed naval knowledge. The naval commander would be either Phraya Ratchawangsan, the leader of ''Krom Asa Cham'', or Phrakhlang, the Minister of Trade. Growing powers of the British and the Vietnamese in the 1820s urged Siam to engage in naval preparations against possible incursions from sea. Siamese temporary fleets composed of sampans, which were for riverine and coastal campaigns and either constructed or levied. Siamese warships were essentially Chinese junks armed with ''Charong'' cannons. In the 1820s, Chao Phraya Nakhon Noi maintained his dock atDemography
The Siamese effective manpower had been in decline since the late Ayutthaya period. The Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67), Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 was the final blow as most Siamese were either deported to Burma or perished in war. The manpower shortage of Siam was exemplified during the Burmese-Siamese War (1785–1786), Nine Armies' War in 1785, in which Burma sent the total number of 144,000 men to invade Siam who managed to only gather 70,000 men for defenses. D.E. Malloch, who accompanied Henry Burney to Bangkok in 1826, noted that Siam was thinly populated and the Siamese lands could support about twice the size of its population.Manpower management
Manpower had been a scarce resource during the early Bangkok period. The Department of Conscription or Registers, the ''Krom Suratsawadi'' (), was responsible for the record-keeping of able-bodied men eligible for corvée and wars. ''Krom Suratsawadi'' recorded the ''Hangwow'' registers () – a list of available ''Phrai'' commoners and ''That'' slaves to be drafted into services. However, pre-modern Siam did not maintain an accurate census of its population. The survey by the court focused on the recruitment of capable manpower not for statistical intelligence. Only able-bodied men were counted on that purpose, excluding women and children and those who had escaped from authority to live in the wilderness of jungles. The authority of Siamese government extended only to the towns and riverine agricultural lands. Most of the pre-modern Siamese lands were dense tropical jungles roamed by wild animals. Leaving the town for jungles was the most effective way to avoid the corvée obligations for Siamese men. The Siamese court devised the method of ''Sak Lek'' () to strictly control the available manpower. The man would be branded with the heated iron cast to create an imprinting tattoo on the back of his hand in the symbol of his responsible department. The ''Sak Lek'' enabled prompt identification and prevented the ''Phrai'' from escaping government duties. The ''Sak Lek'' was traditionally conducted within Central Siam. King Rama III ordered the ''Sak Lek'' of Laos in 1824, which became one of the preceding events of the Lao rebellion (1826–1828), Anouvong's Lao Rebellion in 1827. Prayurawongse, Chao Phraya Phrakhlang initiated the ''Sak Lek'' of Southern Siamese people on the Malay Peninsula in 1849. Effective manpower control was one of major policies of the Siamese court in order to maintain stability and security.Population
Surviving sources on the accurate population of pre-modern Siam does not exist. Only through the estimated projections that the demographic information of pre-modern Siam was revealed. In the first century of the Rattanakosin period, the population of what would become modern Thailand remained relatively static at around 4 million people. Fertility rate was high but life expectancy was averaged to be less than 40 years with infant mortality rate as high as 200 per 1,000 babies. Wars and diseases were major causes of deaths. Men were periodically drafted into warfare. Siamese children died from smallpox yearly and the 1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Cholera epidemics of 1820 and 1846–1860 cholera pandemic, 1849 had claimed 30,000 and 40,000 deaths, respectively. Bangkok was founded in 1782 as the royal seat and became the primate city of Siam. Bangkok inherited the founding population from Thonburi, which had already been enhanced by the influx of Lao and Cambodian war captives and Chinese and Mon immigrants. Through the early Rattanakosin period, the population of Bangkok was estimated to be around 50,000 people. Chinese immigration was the greatest contributor to the population of Bangkok and Central Siam. By the 1820s, Bangkok had surpassed all other cities in Siam in population size. Others estimated population of major town centres in Central Siam in 1827 included Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city), Ayutthaya at 41,350, Chanthaburi at 36,900, Saraburi at 14,320 and Phitsanulok at 5,000 people. Within the Siamese sphere of influence,Ethnic immigration
Since the Thonburi period, Siam had acquired ethnic population through many campaigns against the neighbouring kingdoms. Ethnic war captives were forcibly relocated. In 1779, when the Siamese forces took Vientiane during the Thonburi period, ten thousands of Lao people from Vientiane were deported to settle in Central Siam in Saraburi and Ratchaburi where they were known as the ''Lao Vieng'' (). The Lao elite class, including the princes who were the sons of the Lao king, were settled in Bangkok. In 1804, the Siamese-Lanna forces captured the Burmese-held Chiang Saen. Northern Thai people, Northern Thai inhabitants of Chiang Saen, which were by that time known as "Lao Phung Dam" (, the black bellied Lao), were relocated down south to settle in Saraburi and Ratchaburi. The greatest influx of Lao people came in 1828 after the total destruction of Vientiane, which was estimated to be more than 100,000 people. Through the early nineteenth century, there was a gradual Lao population shift from the Mekong region to the Chi River, Chi-Mun River, Mun Basin of Isan, leading to the foundation of numerous towns in Isan. In 1833, during the Siamese–Vietnamese War (1831–1834), Siamese-Vietnamese War, the Siamese forces took control of Muang Phuan and its whole Phuan population were deported to Siam in order to curb Vietnamese influence. The Phuan people, Lao Phuan people were settled in Central Siam. During one of the civil wars in Cambodia in 1782, KingSocial structure
Despite important political changes, the traditional Siamese society in the early Rattanakosin period remained largely unchanged from the Ayutthaya period. Theravada, Theravada Buddhism served as the main ideology on which the societal principles were based. The king and the royal dynasty stood atop of the social pyramid. Below him was the common populace who were either the ''Nai'' (), who were the leader of their subordinates and held official posts, or ''Phrai'' commoners and ''That'' slaves, though there were substantial degree of social mobility. Ethnic immigrants became ''Phrai'' and ''That'' also, with the exception of the Chinese who had paid the ''Phuk Pee'' tax. ''Sakdina'' was the theoretical and numerical rank accorded to every men of all classes in the kingdom, except the king himself, as described in the Three Seals Law. ''Sakdina'' determined each man's exact level in the social hierarchy. For example, the Sakdina of the nobility ranged from 400 Rai (unit), ''rai'' to 10,000 ''rai'' each. The ''Sakdina'' of a basic Buddhist monk was 400 ''rai''. The ''Sakdina'' of a slave was 5 ''rai''. The traditional Siamese society was roughly stratified into four distinct social classes; * The royalty, ''Chao''; including the king and the royal family * The nobility, ''Khunnang'' (); The nobility referred to any men who held a government position with the ''Sakdina'' of 400 ''rai'' or more and his family. Siamese bureaucratic positions were not hereditary, though some positions were conserved among prominent lineages due to familial and personal connections. The nobility were the ''Nai'' who controlled ''Phrai'' subordinates. A noble and his family were exempted from the corvée. The distinction between the Lower Nobility and the commoners were indecisive. Commoners, at times, were appointed to the nobility by volunteering himself as a leader of a group. The Siamese court recruited officials through personal connections. Any noblemen who wished to start his bureaucratic career should give himself into the service of one of the existing superiors to win the favor and support. Through the recommendations and connections of that superior, the novice official would find his place the bureaucracy. The system of connections maintained the noble status among the connected individuals, though the nobility class itself was not inclusive. Nobles received ''Biawat'' () stipends as income. When a noble died, his belongings and estates were organized and reported to the royal court who would take a part of the wealth as inheritance tax. The royalty and the nobility, who had authority over and commanded the commoners, were collectively called ''Munnai'' (). * Commoners, ''Phrai'' (); ''Phrai'' commoners constituted the majority of the population and were under the control of ''Munnai''. They were mostly agricultural producers. All able-bodied male ''Phrai'', excluding the people of tributary kingdoms, were required to periodically serve the royal court in corvée labors and wars – a form of universal conscription. Due to manpower shortage, King Rama I ordered all available male ''Phrai'' to be registered. The ''Sak Lek'' or the consciption tattooing was imposed on the registered ''Phrai'' to assign their duties. Boys whose height reached two ''sok'' and one ''khuep'' were eligible for the ''Sak Lek''. Unregistered men were denied legal existence and would not be protected by any laws. While men were subjected to periodic government services, women were not recruited. There were three types of ''Phrai;'' ** Direct royal servants, ''Phrai luang'' (); ''Phrai luang'' were under the services of various functional departments of the royal court. In Ayutthaya, ''Phrai luang'' served alternating months, the ''Khao Duean'' (), for the royal court, six months per year in total, and were allowed freetime to return to their farmlands. In the reign of King Rama I, ''Phrai luang'' served alternating two months and became alternating three months in subsequent reigns. Royal services included garrison maintenance and drills, palace and temple constructions, participation in royal ceremonies and warfare. ** Distributed servants, ''Phrai som'' (); ''Phrai som'' were granted by the king to the princes according to the ranks and honors of the princes. The ''Phrai som'' served under services of their princes. However, due to the manpower shortage, King Rama I ordered the ''Phrai som'' to serve additional one-month per year in direct royal service. ** Taxpayer servants, ''Phrai suai'' (); Those ''Phrai'' who resided in distant regions and whose journey to periodically serve was impractical can pay the tax called ''Suai'' () instead of physical service. The ''Suai'' were usually local commodities and valuables, which the royal court would collect and sell to the foreigners as a source of revenue. *Slaves, ''That'' (); The ''That'' slaves were, by law, considered properties of their masters that can be traded, inherited and given to other people without ''That'' consent. In contrast to ''Phrai'' who were allowed freetime, ''That'' slaves were always in the service of the masters and usually lived in the same quarters. Both men and women can be slaves. The majority of the ''That'' rooted in the economic cause. Those commoners who faced financial problems could "sell" themselves to become slaves to earn money. Those who defaulted the debts would become slaves of their lenders. Parents and husbands could also sell their children or wives to become slaves. When a slave managed to repay the debts, the slave would be freed (''Thai'' , to be free). Only two types of slaves that were lifelong and irredeemable. They were ''That Nai Ruean Bia'' () who were born from slave parents in their services, and ''That Chaleoi'' () or the war captive slaves. If a slave woman became a wife of the master or his son, she would be freed. If a slave was captured by the enemy troops and managed to break free and return, the slave would be freed. Outside the social pyramid were the Buddhist monks, who were revered and respected by the Siamese of all classes including the king. The Buddhist monks were exempted from corvée and any forms of taxation as, according to the ''vinaya'', monks could not produce or earn wealth on his own.Religion
Maintenance of orthodox Theravada, Theravadin ''Sangha'' monkhood was one of the main policies of Siamese royal court in the early Rattanakosin period. King Rama I ordered the high-ranking monks to convene the Buddhist council to recompile the Tripiṭaka, Tripitaka Pāli Canon, Pāli canon in 1788, which was regarded as the ninth Buddhist council according to Thai narrative. King Rama I renovated many local existing temples of Bangkok into fine temples. Important monastic temples of Bangkok included Wat Mahathat Yuwaratrangsarit, Wat Mahathat, Wat Pho, Wat Chetuphon,Thammayut
Upon ordination, the Buddhist monk would take the vow of 227 precepts as the ''Vinaya'' or law regulating daily life conducts. Valid ordination required presentation of existing genuine monks to transmit the monkhood onto the new monk. Buddhist monks traced their lineage of ordinations back to Buddha himself. In the early Bangkok period, the Siamese authority faced dilemma in which Buddhist laws declined as the violations of ''Vinaya'' were widespread including accumulation of personal wealth and having children. Many attempts by the royal court were made to purify the monkhood and purged any of 'non-conformist' monks. In 1824, the young Prince Mongkut was ordained as a monk. However, his father King Rama II died fifteen days later and his elder half-brother Prince Chetsadabodin took the throne as King Rama III. Prince Mongkut stayed in monkhood to avoid political intrigues and pursued religious and intellectual life. Prince Mongkut soon found that the mainstream Siamese monkhood was then generally laxed in ''Vinaya''. He then met Phra Sumethmuni a Mon monk in 1830 and discovered that Mon traditions was more strict and closer to the supposed original Buddha's ''Vinaya'' and, therefore, the authentic lineage traceable to Buddha. In 1830, Prince Mongkut moved from Wat Mahathat to Wat Samorai and officially began the ''Thammayut'' or ''Dhammayuttika'' ( 'adhering to the dharma') movement. He studied and followed Mon traditions. Prince Mongkut re-ordained as a monk in Mon tradition at Wat Samorai, where the ''Thammayut'' accumulated followers. The mainstream Siamese monks then became known as the ''Mahanikai'' (). Robes of ''Thammayut'' monks were brownish-red in colour and worn over both shoulders in Mon style, while the robe colour of ''Mahanikai'' monks was bright-orange. ''Thammayut'' forbid the monks to touch money. New Pāli pronunciation and the routine of daily Buddhist chanting were also introduced. Prince Mongkut was appointed as the abbot of Wat Bowonniwet Vihara, Wat Baworn Nivet, which became the headquarter of ''Thammayut'', in 1836. The royal court had mixed reactions with the Thammayut. King Rama III tolerated Thammayut but commented on the Mon-style robes. Prince Rakronnaret, who oversaw the ''Krom Sankhakari'', was the main opponent of Thammayut. Prince Mongkut acquainted himself with Westerners in Bangkok, including Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix, Bishop Pallegoix, and learnt Western sciences and philosophy that would later influence Mongkut's rational rethinking and Buddhist realism in his Thammayut ideals. Thammayut emphasized the importance of Pali, Pāli learning as the sole doctrinal source and considered meditations, magical practices and folklore syncretism as mythical. In 1851, Prince Mongkut decided to order Thammayut monks to abandon Mon-style robes due to pressures. Prince Mongkut went to become the king in 1851 and the Mon-style monk robes were reinstated. The leadership of Thammayut passed to Prince Pavares Variyalongkorn.Hinduism
Hindu court brahmins continued to play an important role in Siamese royal ceremonies during the Rattanakosin Kingdom into the present. In 1784, King Rama I built a Hindu temple as the home for the Siamese court brahmins, the Devasathan, which still serves as the home of Hinduism Hinduism in Thailand, in Thailand to the present day. In that same year, the famous Giant Swing was constructed in front of the Devasathan, nearby to Wat Suthat, which was used in the annual Hindu Triyamphway Ceremony, whose function discontinued in 1935 due to safety reasons.Christianity
In 1779, King Taksin of Thonburi ordered the expulsion of three French Catholic priests: Olivier-Simon Le Bon the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bangkok, vicar apostolic of Siam, Joseph-Louis Coudé and Arnaud-Antoine Garnault from Siam for their refusals to drink the sacred water to swear fealty to the king. Le Bon retired to Goa where he died in 1780. Coudé left for Kedah and he was appointed the new vicar apostolic of Siam in 1782. Coudé returned to Bangkok in 1783. Coudé was pardoned by King Rama I and was allowed to skip the lustral water drinking ceremony. Coudé took the vicarate seat at Santa Cruz Church, Bangkok, Santa Cruz church in Kudi Chin district. However, as French bishops continued to monopolize vicarate position in Siam, Coudé faced oppositions from the Portuguese who formed the majority of Catholics in Bangkok. Coudé left Bangkok for Kedah where he died in 1785 and was succeeded by Garnault in 1787. Vicars apostolic of Siam in the early Bangkok period usually spent most of tenure in Kedah, Penang, and Mergui due to resistance from the Portuguese in Bangkok who always requested for Portuguese bishops from either Goa or Macau. Chanthaburi, Chantaburi arose as the centre of immigrated Vietnamese Catholics. Kedah, Malacca, Singapore and Tenasserim were added to the territory of apostolic vicarate of Siam in 1840. Jean-Paul Courvezy, the vicar apostolic of Siam, chose Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix as his coadjutor in 1838. Courvezy moved to stay permanently in Singapore, leaving Pallegoix in Bangkok. In 1841, in accordance with the papal brief ''Univerci Dominici'', the apostolic vicarate of Siam was divided into apostolic vicarates of Eastern Siam, corresponding to Siam proper, and Western Siam corresponding to Malay peninsula. Courvezy remained as the vicar apostolic of Western Siam at Singapore, while Pallegoix was appointed the vicar apostolic of Eastern Siam in Bangkok. Pallegoix was the first vicar apostolic to spend most of his time in Bangkok. In 1841, there were total of 4,300 recorded Catholics in Siam with 1,700 Vietnamese Catholics in St. Francis Xavier Church in Bangkok, 700 Portuguese-Cambodian Catholics in Immaculate Conception Church, Bangkok, Immaculate Conception Church, 500 Portuguese-Siamese Catholics in the Santa Cruz Church and another 500 at Holy Rosary Church, Bangkok, Holy Rosary Calvário Church and 800 Vietnamese Catholics in Chanthaburi. In 1849, during 1846–1860 cholera pandemic, the Cholera epidemic, King Rama III ordered the Christian churches to release domesticated animals and feed them to make merits to appease the diseases according to Buddhist beliefs. Missionaries did not comply and incurred the anger of the king. Pallegoix then decided to release the animals per royal orders. King Rama III was satisfied but ordered the expulsions of eight priests who refused to comply. In 1852, King Mongkut personally wrote to the expelled eight missionaries urging them to return and promising not to impose Buddhist beliefs on missionaries in the future. Pope Pius IX issued thanks to King Mongkut by papal briefs ''Pergrata Nobis'' (1852) and ''Summa quidem'' (1861). In 1828 saw the arrival of first two Protestant missionaries in Bangkok: British Jacob Tomlin from London Missionary Society and German Lutheranism, Lutheran Karl Gützlaff. Tomlin stayed only for nine months and Gützlaff stayed until 1833. Protestant missions in Siam was then very nascent. American Presbyterianism, Presbyterian missionaries from American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, ABCFM and International Ministries (organization), Baptist missionaries arrived in this period. American missionaries were called 'physicians' by the Siamese because they usually practiced Western medicine. Though their missionary works were largely unclimactic, they contributed to Thai history by the introduction of Western sciences and technologies. These included Presbyterian Dan Beach Bradley (, arrived in 1835), who introduced surgery, printing and vaccination to Siam, Presbyterian Jesse Caswell (arrived in 1839 together with Asa Hemenway), who closely associated with Prince Mongkut, Baptists, Baptist John Taylor Jones (arrived in 1833) and Baptist J.H. Chandley (, arrived in 1843).Islam
After the fall of the Ayutthaya Kingdom and failed attempts to reacquire the portage route long by the Chakri rulers, Persian and Muslim influence in Siam declined as Chinese influence within the kingdom grew. Despite this, however, the Muslim community remained a sizable minority in Bangkok, particularly in the first hundred years or so. After the Fall of Ayutthaya, Shia Islam, Shiite Muslims of Persian descent from Ayutthaya settled in the Kudi Chin district. ‘Kudi’ () was the Siamese term for Shiite Hussainiya, Imambarah, though it could also refer to a mosque. Muslim communities in Siam were led by Phraya Chula Ratchamontri (), the position that had been held by a single lineage of Shiite Persian descendant of Sheikh Ahmad (nobleman of Siam), Sheikh Ahmad since 1656 and until 1939. Phraya Chula Ratchamontri was also the Lord of the Right Pier who headed the ''Kromma Tha Khwa'' () or the Department of the Right Pier that dealt with trade and affairs with Muslim Indians and Middle Easterners. Shiite Persians were elite Muslims who served as officials in ''Kromma Tha Khwa''. Shiites in Siam were characterized by their ritual of the Mourning of Muharram or ''Chao Sen'' ceremony (Husayn ibn Ali, Imam Hussein was called ''Chao Sen'' in Siamese). King Rama II ordered the Muharram rituals to be performed before him in the royal palace in 1815 and 1816. ''Kudi'' Mosques were established and concentrated on the West bank of Chao Phraya River in Thonburi. Important ''Kudi''s in Thonburi included Ton Son Mosque, Tonson Mosque (Kudi Yai or the Great Kudi, oldest mosque in Bangkok), Kudi Charoenphat (Kudi Lang, the Lower Kudi) and Bang Luang Mosque, Bangluang Mosque (Kudi Khao or the White Kudi). The Siamese used the term ''Khaek'' () for the Islamic peoples in general. In traditional Siam, religion was closely tied with ethnicity. Muslims in Siam included the Sunni Islam, Sunni ''Khaek'' Chams, Cham and ''Khaek'' Malayu (Malays) and Shiite ''Khaek'' Ma-ngon or ''Khaek'' Chao Sen, referring to Persians.Economy
Pre-Burney: 1782–1826
Due to the raging wars and population dearth, the overall productivity of Siam in the early decades of Rattanakosin remained relatively low. The Siamese economy in the early Bangkok period was based on subsistence agrarian economy. Commoners lived on the production of their lands and the central authority levied taxes as income. Land was abundant, while manpower was in shortage. Taxation and Royal Junk expenditures were the main revenues of the royal court. Traditionally, as in Ayutthaya, the royal court levied four kinds of taxes; * Tariffs, ''Changkob'' (); The royal court collected tariffs from both internal and external checkpoints called ''Khanon'' (), both land and riverine, where officials inspected the commodity goods. One out of ten goods was collected by the ''Khanon''. The ''Khanon'' also measured the width of the incoming ships to determine the size of the ship. Tariff was collected in accordance with the size of the ship, known as ''Phasi Pak Reua'' (), or the measurement duties. Large ships paid more tariff. Arriving foreign traders were charged with tariffs. ''Phra Khlang Sinkha'' or the Royal Warehouse was responsible for the levy of ''Phasi Pak Reua'' on foreign merchant ships, which had been the major revenue for the royal court. * ''Akon'' (); the production tax imposed on a specific kind of commodity such as rice, fruits and beverages. Rice producers were charged with two ''thang''s of rice per one ''rai'' of agricultural land. The rice fields belonging to the nobility were exempted until the reign of King Rama III. Other specific kinds of products were levied included sugarcane, indigo, green beans, soybeans, sesame, tobacco, lemon basil, onions, turmeric, jutes, tamarinds, bananas, mangoes, betel nuts, coconuts, durians, oranges, etc. The largest ''Akon'' revenue were from the alcoholic spirit tax, fishery tax, market tax, gambling den tax, fruit orchard tax and the boat tax. * ''Suai'' (); levied from the ''Phrai suai'' who paid the tax in form of local valuables instead of serving corvee labors. Gold, lacquer, saltpeter, teak and beeswax were extracted from the hinterland regions of Khorat Plateau and the Upper Chao Phraya Basin for Bangkok. These forests products were usually sold to foreign merchants to benefit the royal court. * ''Reucha'' (); collected as fees from government procedures such as court hearings and other document procedures. Taxes were collected in forms of commodities or currency money. Main spending of the royal court went to the ''Biawat'' or the stipends of all administrative officials and the construction of palaces and temples and firearm purchases. In the early decades of Rattanakosin, the financial situation of the royal court was in strain. In 1796, Prince Maha Sura Singhanat, Maha Sura Singahanat of the Front Palace, who received 1,000 ''chang'' annually, informed King Rama I that his share was inadequate to be distributed as ''Biawat'' to his officials. King Rama I replied that the prince should invest more in the Royal Junks to earn money. King Rama I conducted his personal trade with Qing China through the ''Samphao Luang'' () or Royal Junks, in joint venture with Chinese merchants who provided the crew. Export demands on Siam had been mainly forest products such as agarwood and Biancaea sappan, sappanwood. The royal court acquired valuable products from the hinterland and loaded them on the junks to be traded. Chinese merchants enhanced this process by taking the role as middlemen and shippers. Qing China had been the main trading partner of Siam since the late Ayutthaya period. In the early nineteenth century, Qing China requested to buy rice from Siam. Traditionally, rice was the forbidden commodity due to the fact that it was the main staple and crucial to stability of the kingdom. King Rama II allowed rice to be exported to China in some rice-surplus years. Chinese settler merchants played very important roles in the development of Siamese economy in the early Rattanakosin period. In the 1810s, the Chinese introduced the technology of sugar production leading to the establishment of numerous Chinese-owned sugarcane plantations in Central Siam. Crawfurd mentioned the Chinese sugarcane plantations in ฺMueang Chonburi District, Bang Pla Soi, Nakhon Chai Si District, Nakhon Chaisi, Bangkok and Chachoengsao, Petriu. In 1822, Siam exported more than 8 million pounds of sugar. For the first time, the export-oriented marketization took over native trade of forest products. However, the profits of the these growing agro-industries were limited to the Chinese bourgeoisie and native elite class. The sugar industry remained as the major Siamese export well into the late nineteenth century.Burney Treaty and consequences: 1826–1855
By the reign of King Rama II, however, the ''Samphao Luang'' or Royal Junks became less profitable due to competition with growing private sectors. Since the Ayutthaya period in the sixteenth century, the Siamese royal court had monopolized foreign trades through the ''Phra Khlang Sinkha'' or Royal Warehouse. All incoming foreign ships including European merchants should go through inspection by the ''Phra Khlang Sinkha'' who collected the ''Phasi Pak Reua'' or measurement duties and bought goods. Foreign merchants could only trade through the ''Phra Khlang Sinkha'' and could not trade directly with the private Siamese. The measurement duties had been a major source of revenue to royal court. When the British arrived in the 1820s, they saw traditional royal monopoly as a hindrance and implied that free trade should be the better agreement. This culminated in the arrival ofCurrency
Rattanakosin Kingdom used the silver bullet money known as Bullet money, ''Photduang'' () as currency until it was officially replaced with flat coins in 1904. ''Photduang'' originated in the Sukhothai period and had been in use through the Ayutthaya period. A silver bar was cut into discrete units of weight, which were melted and cast into strips that were bent to curve in the form of curled worms – hence the name ''Photduang'' meaning 'curled worm'. ''Photduang'' bullet coins were imprinted with the ''Chakra'' Seal, which was the kingdom seal, on one side and the regal seal of each reign on other side. King Rama I had the ''Unalom'' Lotus Seal imprinted on the ''Photduang'' of his reign. King Rama II used the garuda seal. The seal of King Rama III was in the shape of a palace. The weight units of ''Photduang'' were ''Tamleung'' (, 60 g of silver), ''Baht'' (, 15 g), ''Salueng'' (, quarter of ''Baht''), ''Fueang'' (, half of ''Saleung'') and ''Phai'' (, quarter of ''Fueang''). Different currencies were used in Lanna and Lao Kingdoms. In Laos, the Lat money, ''Lat'' silver bars were used. ''Photduang'' were also accepted in those regions. Though ''Photduang'' currency existed, the Barter, barter exchange remained prevalent. In the reign of King Rama II, the royal court distributed ''Biawat'' stipends to government officials in the form of white clothes. Some taxes were collected in form of commodity products.Culture
Education
There was no official institutions for education such as universities in pre-modern Siam. Siamese traditional education was closely tied to the Buddhist religion. Boys went to temples or became novice monks to learn Thai and Pāli languages from monks, who offered tutorships for free as a part of religious works. Princes and young nobles received tuition from high-ranking monks in fine temples. Girls were not expected to be literate and were usually taught domestic arts such as culinary and embroidery. However, education for women was not restricted and upper-class women had more opportunities for literacy. There were some prominent female authors in the early Rattanakosin period. Craftsmanships and artisanships were taught internally in the same family or community. The only higher education available in pre-modern Siam was the Buddhist Pāli doctrinal learning – the ''Pariyattham'' (). Monks took exams to be qualified to rise up in the ecclesiastic bureaucracy. There were three levels of ''Pariyattham'' exams inherited from Ayutthaya with each level called ''Parian'' (). In the 1810s, the three ''Parian'' levels were re-organized into nine ''Parian'' levels. ''Pariyattham'' exams were organized by the royal court, who encouraged Pāli learning in order to uphold Buddhism, and were usually held in the Wat Phra Kaew, Emerald Buddha temple. Examinations involved translation and oral recitation of Pāli doctrines in front of examiner monks. ''Pariyattham'' exam was the vehicle both for intellectual pursuits and for advancement in monastic hierarchy for a monk. King Rama III ordered traditional Thai religious and secular arts, including Buddhist doctrines, traditional medicine, literature and geopolitics to be inscribed on stone steles at Wat Pho from 1831 to 1841. The Epigraphic Archives of Wat Pho was recognized by UNESCO as a Memory of the World Programme, Memory of the World and were examples of materials with closer resemblance to modern educationEducational reform
Rama VI was the first king of Siam to set up a model of the constitution at Dusit Palace. He wanted first to see how things could be managed under this Western system. He saw advantages in the system, and thought that Siam could move slowly towards it, but could not be adopted right away as the majority of the Siamese people did not have enough education to understand such a change just yet. In 1916 higher education came to Siam. Rama VI set up Vajiravudh College, modeled after the British Eton College, as well as the first Thai university, Chulalongkorn University, modeled after Oxbridge.Art and literature
Rama II was a lover of the arts and in particular the literary arts. He was an accomplished poet and anyone with the ability to write a refined piece of poetry would gain the favor of the king. This led to his being dubbed the "poet king". Due to his patronage, the poet Sunthon Phu was able to raise his Thai noble titles, noble title from "phrai" to "khun" and later "phra". Sunthon – also known as the drunken writer – wrote numerous works, including the epic poem ''Phra Aphai Mani''. Rama II rewrote much of the great literature from the reign of Rama I in a modern style. He is credited with writing a popular version of the Thai folk tale Ramakien and wrote a number of dance dramas such as Sang Thong. The king was an accomplished musician, playing and composing for the fiddle and introducing new instrumental techniques. He was also a sculptor and is said to have sculpted the face of the Niramitr Buddha inClothing
As same as Ayutthaya period, both Thai males and females dressed themselves with a loincloth wrap called ''Chang kben, chong kraben''. Men wore their ''chong kraben'' to cover the waist to halfway down the thigh, while women covered the waist to well below the knee. Bare chests and bare feet were accepted as part of the Thai formal dress code, and is observed in murals, illustrated manuscripts, and early photographs up to the middle of the 1800s. However, after the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67), Second Fall of Ayutthaya, central Thai women began cutting their hair in a crew-cut short style, which remained the national hairstyle until the 1900s. Prior to the 20th century, the primary markers that distinguished class in Thai clothing were the use of cotton and silk cloths with printed or woven motifs, but both commoners and royals alike wore wrapped, not stitched clothing. From the 1860s onward, Thai royals "selectively adopted Victorian fashion, Victorian corporeal and sartorial etiquette to fashion modern personas that were publicized domestically and internationally by means of mechanically reproduced images." Stitched clothing, including court attire and ceremonial uniforms, were invented during the reign of King Chulalongkorn. Western forms of dress became popular among urbanites in Bangkok during this time period. During the early 1900s, King Vajiravudh launched a campaign to encourage Thai women to wear long hair instead of traditional short hair, and to wear (), a tubular skirt, instead of the (), a cloth wrap.See also
* Coronation of the Thai monarch * List of Kings of Thailand, List of Chakri kings ** Thai monarchs' family tree, Chakri kings' family tree * History of BangkokNotes
References
Bibliography
* Greene, Stephen Lyon Wakeman. ''Absolute Dreams. Thai Government Under Rama VI, 1910–1925''. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1999 {{DEFAULTSORT:Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782-1932) Rattanakosin Kingdom, 18th century in Siam 19th century in Siam, . 20th century in Thailand, . 18th century in Cambodia 19th century in Cambodia History of Laos History of Malaysia States and territories established in 1782 States and territories disestablished in 1932 1782 establishments in Siam, . Former countries of the interwar period 2nd millennium in Thailand 1782 establishments 1932 disestablishments in Siam, * 18th-century establishments in Siam Former kingdoms