The Russo-Turkish wars ( ), or the Russo-Ottoman wars (), began in 1568 and continued intermittently until 1918. They consisted of twelve conflicts in total, making them one of the longest series of wars in the
history of Europe
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD 500), the Middle Ages (AD 500–1500), and the modern era (since AD 1500).
The first early Euro ...
.
All but four of these wars ended in losses for the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
, which was undergoing a period of
stagnation and
decline. Conversely, they showcased the ascendancy of the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
as a significant European power after
Peter the Great
Peter I (, ;
– ), better known as Peter the Great, was the Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia, Tsar of all Russia from 1682 and the first Emperor of Russia, Emperor of all Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. He reigned j ...
oversaw extensive modernization efforts in the early 18th century.
Ultimately, however, the end of the Russo-Turkish wars came about with the dissolution of the two belligerents' respective states as a consequence of
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
: the
Russian Empire collapsed in 1917 and was ultimately succeeded by the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922; while the
Ottoman Empire was partitioned between 1918 and 1922 and succeeded by the
Republic of Turkey
Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
in 1923.
History
Initial and intermediate phases (1568–1739)
Russia before Peter the Great

The first
Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570) occurred after the
conquest of Kazan and
Astrakhan
Astrakhan (, ) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the Caspian Depression, from the Caspian Se ...
by the Russian tsar
Ivan the Terrible
Ivan IV Vasilyevich (; – ), commonly known as Ivan the Terrible,; ; monastic name: Jonah. was Grand Prince of Moscow, Grand Prince of Moscow and all Russia from 1533 to 1547, and the first Tsar of all Russia, Tsar and Grand Prince of all R ...
. The Ottoman Sultan
Selim II tried to squeeze the Russians out of the lower
Volga by sending a military expedition to Astrakhan in 1569. The Turkish expedition ended in disaster for the
Ottoman army
The Military of the Ottoman Empire () was the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire. It was founded in 1299 and dissolved in 1922.
Army
The Military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years ...
, which could not take Astrakhan and almost completely perished in the steppes, while the
Ottoman fleet was wrecked by a storm in the
Sea of Azov
The Sea of Azov is an inland Continental shelf#Shelf seas, shelf sea in Eastern Europe connected to the Black Sea by the narrow (about ) Strait of Kerch, and sometimes regarded as a northern extension of the Black Sea. The sea is bounded by Ru ...
. The peace treaty between the two sides cemented Russia's rule on the Volga, but allowed the Ottoman Empire to obtain a number of commercial benefits. The
Crimean Khanate, an Ottoman
vassal
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
, continued its expansion against the
Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia, also known as the Tsardom of Moscow, was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of tsar by Ivan the Terrible, Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721.
...
, burning down
Moscow
Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
in 1571, but was defeated at the
Battle of Molodi in 1572.
The next conflict between Russia and Turkey began 100 years later as part of the struggle for the territory of Ukraine. While Russia conquered
Left-bank Ukraine after the
Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)
Armed conflicts between Poland (including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland) and Russia (including the Soviet Union, the Russian Empire, the Tsardom of Russia and the Principality of Moscow) include:
:
: ...
, the Ottoman Empire, in the course of the
Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676), spread its rule over all of
right-bank Ukraine with the support of its
vassal
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
,
Petro Doroshenko (1665–1672).
The latter's pro-Ottoman policy caused disapproval among many
Ukrainian Cossacks, who would elect
Ivan Samoilovich as sole
Hetman of all Ukraine in 1674. In 1676, Russian troops captured
Chigirin and overthrew Doroshenko, who was exiled to Russia. In 1677, the Ottoman army tried to retake Chigirin, but was defeated. In 1678, the Ottoman army was finally able to take Chigirin after a bloody assault, but here the Ottoman expansion to the northeast was stopped. In 1679–80, the Russians repelled the attacks of the
Crimean Tatars and signed the
Treaty of Bakhchisarai in 1681, which established the Russo-Turkish border on the
Dnieper River.
Russia during and after Peter the Great
Russia joined the European
Holy League (
Austria
Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
,
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
,
Venice
Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...
) in 1686.
During the war, the Russian army organized the
Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689 and the
Azov campaigns (1695–96). In the light of Russia's preparations for the war with
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...
and other countries' signing the
Treaty of Karlowitz with Turkey in 1699, the Russian government signed the
Treaty of Constantinople with the Ottoman Empire in 1700. Following the results of peace, Russia managed to annex
Azov and get access to the Sea of Azov.

After the Russians had defeated the Swedes and the pro-
Swedish Empire
The Swedish Empire or the Great Power era () was the period in Swedish history spanning much of the 17th and early 18th centuries during which Sweden became a European great power that exercised territorial control over much of the Baltic regi ...
Ukrainian Cossacks led by
Ivan Mazepa in the
Battle of Poltava in 1709,
Charles XII of Sweden managed to persuade the Ottoman Sultan
Ahmed III to declare war on Russia on November 20, 1710. The
Prut campaign of Peter the Great ended very unsuccessfully for Russia. The Russian army, led by the tsar, was surrounded by a superior Turkish-Tatar army and was forced to agree to unfavorable peace conditions, according to which it returned the previously captured Azov to the Ottoman Empire.
By the late 17th century,
Safavid Iran, which neighbored both empires and had been one of the greatest rivals for Turkey
for centuries (16th–19th centuries), had been heavily declining. Taking advantage of the situation, Russia and the Ottoman Empire conquered swaths of its territory comprising contemporary
Dagestan,
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
, and
Northern Iran, which was taken by
Peter I in the
Russo-Persian War (1722–1723); the Ottomans took the territory to the west, comprising modern day
Armenia
Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
, parts of Eastern
Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
, as well as western Iran. The gains by both were confirmed in the
Treaty of Constantinople (1724). For a few years, they bordered each other along a large territory in the Caucasus, which caused further frictions.
Russia managed to secure a favourable international situation by signing treaties with Persia in
1732 and
1735. These returned all Iranian territories gained since 1722 in the
North
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating Direction (geometry), direction or geography.
Etymology
T ...
and
South Caucasus
The South Caucasus, also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus, is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and West Asia, straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains. The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Armenia, ...
and Northern Iran, and avoided war with the emerging leader of Persia,
Nader Shah. The treaties had other diplomatically favourable aspects as they established a Russo-Iranian alliance against Turkey, as Persia was
at war with the Ottoman Empire. In the meantime Russia was also supporting the accession to the Polish throne of
Augustus III in the
War of the Polish Succession (1733–35), over the
French-nominated
Stanisław Leszczyński. Austria had been Russia's ally since 1726.

Russia entered into
another war with the Ottoman Empire in 1736, prompted by raids on
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
by Crimean Tatars and the military campaign of the
Crimean khan in the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
. In May 1736, the Russian army launched an invasion of the Crimean peninsula and burned the capital of the Crimean Khanate,
Bakhchysarai. On June 19, the Russian Don army under the command of General
Peter Lacy captured Azov.
In July 1737, the
Münnich army took by storm the Ottoman fortress of
Ochakov. The Lacy army (now 40,000 strong) marched into the Crimea the same month, inflicting some defeats on the army of the Crimean Khan and capturing
Karasubazar. Lacy and his soldiers had to leave the Crimea, however, due to lack of supplies.
Austria entered the war against Turkey in July 1737 but was defeated a number of times. In August, Russia, Austria and Turkey began negotiations in
Nemirov, which would turn out to be fruitless. There were no significant military operations in 1738. The Russian army had to leave Ochakov and
Kinburn due to a plague outbreak. In 1739, the
Münnich army crossed the
Dnieper, defeated the Ottoman Empire at
Stavuchany, and occupied the fortress of
Khotin and
Iaşi. However, Austria was defeated by the Ottoman Empire once again and signed a
separate peace treaty on August 21. This, coupled with the imminent threat of
Swedish invasion, forced Russia to sign the
Treaty of Niš with Turkey on September 18, ending the war.
Gradual Ottoman defeat (1768–1878)
Russian advances under Catherine the Great
Following a border incident at Balta, Sultan
Mustafa III declared war on Russia on September 25, 1768. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of the
Bar Confederation, while Russia was supported by
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland, and Wales. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European ...
, which offered naval advisers to the
Imperial Russian Navy.
In January 1769, a 70-thousand Turkish-Tatar army led by Crimean Khan
Qırım Giray invaded the lands of central Ukraine. Crimean Tatars, Turks and
Nogais ravaged
New Serbia, took a significant number of
slaves
Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
. Their raid was repulsed by the garrison of the
Fortress of St. Elizabeth, after which the movement to the Black Sea continued troops of General
Rumyantsev.

The Polish opposition was defeated by
Alexander Suvorov
Count Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky, Prince of Italy () was a Russian general and military theorist in the service of the Russian Empire.
Born in Moscow, he studied military history as a young boy and joined the Imperial Russian ...
, who was then transferred to the Ottoman theatre of operations, where in 1773 and 1774 he won several minor and major battles following the previous grand successes of the Russian Field-Marshal
Pyotr Rumyantsev at
Larga and
Kagul.
Naval operations of the
Russian Baltic Fleet in the Mediterranean yielded victories under the command of
Aleksei Orlov. In 1771,
Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
rebelled against Ottoman rule, while the Russian fleet totally destroyed the
Ottoman Navy at the
Battle of Chesma.
On July 21, 1774, the Ottoman Empire signed the
Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which formally granted independence to the
Crimean Khanate, but in reality it became dependent on Russia. Russia received 4.5 million rubles and two key seaports allowing direct access to the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal sea, marginal Mediterranean sea (oceanography), mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bound ...
. It also marked the first time that a foreign power directly interfered in the affairs of the
Sublime Porte, as the treaty gave Russia protector status over Turkey's Orthodox Christian subjects.
In 1783, Russia
annexed the Crimean Khanate. In the same year, Russia established its protectorate over the
Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti according to the
Treaty of Georgievsk. In 1787, Empress
Catherine II
Catherine II. (born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 172917 November 1796), most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was the reigning empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband, Peter III ...
made a triumphant
trip across the Crimea, accompanied by representatives of foreign courts and her ally,
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor. These events and the friction caused by mutual complaints of infringements of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which had closed the previous war, stirred up public opinion in
Constantinople
Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
, and the British ambassador lent his support to the war party.
In 1787 the Ottomans demanded that Russia vacate the Crimea. Russia declared war, but Ottoman preparations were inadequate and the moment was ill-chosen, now that Russia and Austria were in alliance, a fact that came to light only after events were already in motion. The Turks
drove back the Austrians from
Mehadia and overran the
Banat
Banat ( , ; ; ; ) is a geographical and Historical regions of Central Europe, historical region located in the Pannonian Basin that straddles Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. It is divided among three countries: the eastern part lie ...
(1789); but in Moldavia Field-Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev was successful and captured
Iaşi and
Khotyn. Ottoman generals were incompetent, and the army mutinous; expeditions for the relief of
Bender and
Akkerman failed,
Belgrade
Belgrade is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin, Pannonian Plain and the Balkan Peninsula. T ...
was taken by the Austrians, The Russian army under the command of
Alexander Suvorov
Count Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky, Prince of Italy () was a Russian general and military theorist in the service of the Russian Empire.
Born in Moscow, he studied military history as a young boy and joined the Imperial Russian ...
defeated the Turks in the
Battle of Rymnik and
captured Izmail. The fall of
Anapa completed the series of Ottoman disasters.
The Russian
Black Sea Fleet, created just a few years earlier, under the command of
Admiral Ushakov, inflicted a series of defeats on the Turkish Fleet and seized the initiative in the Black Sea.
Sultan
Selim III was nervous to restore his country's prestige by a victory before making peace, but the condition of his military rendered this hope unavailing. Turkey signed an assistance pact with
Prussia
Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a Germans, German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussia (region), Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, ...
on 31 January 1790, but received no help during the war. Accordingly, the
Treaty of Jassy was signed with Russia on 9 January 1792, by which the Crimea and Ochakov were left to Russia, the
Dniester was made the frontier in Europe, and the Asiatic frontier remained unchanged.
Engagements in the 19th century

Gábor Ágoston attributes the decline of Ottoman power relative to Russia to the reactionary
Janissaries:
:Despite all these treatises and efforts at modernization, the Janissaries and their allies managed to derail Sultan Selim III's Western-style military, bureaucratic, and financial reforms through a
coup, even killing the sultan himself. It was not until the 1830s that
fundamental reforms could be started under
Mahmud II
Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms ...
, who
destroyed the Janissaries in 1826, a century and a quarter after Peter the Great's liquidation of the ''
strel'tsy.''
In 1806, the Ottoman Empire incited by
Napoleonic France started a
new war. The long six-year war for Russia took place in parallel with the
Russo-Persian War, the
Russo-Swedish War and the
War of the Fourth Coalition
The War of the Fourth Coalition () was a war spanning 1806–1807 that saw a multinational coalition fight against Napoleon's First French Empire, French Empire, subsequently being defeated. The main coalition partners were Kingdom of Prussia, ...
. Despite this, in the decisive campaign of 1811, the Russian army of
Kutuzov defeated the Ottoman army on the
Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
, which made it possible to conclude a peace treaty beneficial for Russia, according to which Russia gained
Bessarabia.
The Ottoman Empire had maintained military parity with Russia until the second half of the eighteenth century, but by the 1820s the Ottoman armies were unable to put down the
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. In 1826, the Greeks were assisted ...
in
southern Greece. The great powers of Europe intervened, and assisted
Greece
Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
with its independence. After the
Battle of Navarino and the
Russo-Turkish War (1828–29), in which the Russian army first crossed the
Balkan Mountains
The Balkan mountain range is located in the eastern part of the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It is conventionally taken to begin at the peak of Vrashka Chuka on the border between Bulgaria and Serbia. It then runs f ...
and took
Adrianople, Turkey recognized the independence of Greece and the transition of the
Black Sea coast of the Caucasus to Russia. Thus Greece became the first independent country created out of a section of the Ottoman Empire. Russian Empire aspirations for a section of the empire and bases on Russia's southern flank provoked
British fears over naval domination of the Mediterranean and control of the land route to the
Indian Subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
.
[ David R. Stone, ''A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya'' (Greenwood Publishing, 2006)]

When in 1853 Russia destroyed the entire Ottoman fleet at
Sinop, Britain and
France
France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
concluded that armed intervention on the side of the Ottomans was the only way to halt a massive Russian expansion. Even though the Ottomans and Russians were on opposing sides, the roots of the ensuing
Crimean War
The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861), Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont fro ...
lay in the rivalry between the British and the Russians. The war ended unfavorably for the Russians, with the Paris
peace of 1856.
The wars declined Ottoman morale and turned it helpless, illustrating that modern technology and superior weaponry were the most important part of a modern army, and a part that the Ottoman Empire was sorely lacking. While fighting alongside the British, French, and even the
Piedmontese, the Ottomans could see how far they had fallen behind. Things began to change after the Crimean War.
One of these changes arose as Europeans began to see commercial opportunity in the empire and the money entering via trade dramatically increased. The government also received a great deal of extra money from a uniform tax system with little corruption. The Sultan got a tighter grip on the provincial
beys and increased the tribute they had to pay. However, Sultan
Abdülaziz, used much of this money on furnishing and creating great palaces to rival the ones in England and France, which he had visited. The empire was undergoing a revolution, and throughout Anatolia a new
Ottoman nationalism was appearing. It seemed as though it might be possible for the empire to turn its decline around.
The monetary and governmental collapse combined with a new threat from Russia began the final stages of the Empire's collapse. Russia had been forced by the Crimean War to give up its ambitions of conquering the Ottoman capital of
Constantinople
Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
and taking control of the
Bosphorus. Instead it decided to focus on gaining power in the
Balkans
The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
. The population of much of the Balkans were
Slavs
The Slavs or Slavic people are groups of people who speak Slavic languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout the northern parts of Eurasia; they predominantly inhabit Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and ...
, as were the Russians. They also mainly followed the
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Eastern Orthodox Church, officially the Orthodox Catholic Church, and also called the Greek Orthodox Church or simply the Orthodox Church, is List of Christian denominations by number of members, one of the three major doctrinal and ...
, as did the Russians. When new movements in Russia, such as that of the
Slavophiles, started to enter the region, it became agitated and prone to revolution. When the government in Constantinople tried to initiate measures to prevent an economic collapse throughout the empire, it touched off a
revolt in Herzegovina in 1875. The revolt in
Herzegovina
Herzegovina ( or ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Hercegovina, separator=" / ", Херцеговина, ) is the southern and smaller of two main geographical Regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Bosnia (reg ...
quickly spread to
Bosnia and then
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
. Soon
Serbia
, image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg
, national_motto =
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map =
, map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
also entered the war against the Turks. These revolts were the first test of the new
Modern Ottoman Army. Even though they were not up to Western European standards, the army fought effectively and brutally; during the war, the Ottomans carried out the
Batak massacre in 1876.
Januarius MacGahan, a journalist of the
New York Herald and the London ''
The Daily News'' wrote of the terrible happenings after his visit to Batak with
Eugene Schuyler. According to most sources, around 5,000 people were massacred in Batak alone. The total number of victims in the April uprising according to most estimates around 15,000, which is supported by
Eugene Schuyler's report, published in ''The Daily News'', according to which at least 15,000 persons were killed during the April Uprising in addition to 36 villages in three districts being buried. According to
Donald Quataert around 1,000 Muslims were killed by Christian Bulgarians and consequently 3,700 Christians were killed by Muslims.
[Quataert, Donald. ''The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922'', Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.69]
Soon the Balkan rebellions were beginning to falter. In Europe, papers were filled with reports of Ottoman soldiers killing thousands of Slavs. Even in Great Britain
William Ewart Gladstone
William Ewart Gladstone ( ; 29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British politican, starting as Conservative MP for Newark and later becoming the leader of the Liberal Party (UK), Liberal Party.
In a career lasting over 60 years, he ...
published his account of Ottoman atrocities in his ''Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East''.
Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East, 5 September 1876
/ref> The uprisings raised a chance for Russia, and ( Prince Gorchakov) and Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
( Count Andrássy), who made the secret Reichstadt Agreement on July 8, 1876, on partitioning the Balkan peninsula depending on the outcome.
The following year a new Russo-Turkish war had begun. Despite fighting better than they ever had before, the modernised Ottoman armies still were not equal to the Imperial Russian Army
The Imperial Russian Army () was the army of the Russian Empire, active from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was organized into a standing army and a state militia. The standing army consisted of Regular army, regular troops and ...
. This time there was no help from abroad; in truth, many European nations supported the Russian war, as long as it did not get too close to Constantinople. Ten and a half months later when the war had ended, the age of Ottoman domination over the Balkans was over. In the Balkans, the Russian army, having crossed the Danube, captured the Shipka Pass. The Turkish army of Osman Nuri Pasha, after a stubborn struggle, surrendered to Plevna. After that, the Russian army crossed the Balkan Mountains, defeated the remaining Turkish troops and reached the approaches to Constantinople. In the Caucasus, the Turkish army held back the Russian offensive, but after a defeat at the Battle of Aladzha, retreated to Erzurum
Erzurum (; ) is a List of cities in Turkey, city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city and capital of Erzurum Province and is 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 367,250 in 2010. It is the site of an ...
, after which the Russians took Kars. On the Black Sea, the Ottoman fleet had a colossal advantage, since the Russian Black Sea Fleet fleet had not recovered from the Crimean War. Despite this, the hostilities on the Black Sea in this war were not important.
In response to the Russian proximity to the straits the British, against the wishes of the new Sultan Abdul Hamid II, intervened in the war. A large task force representing British naval supremacy entered the straits of Marmara and anchored in view of both the Dolmabahçe Palace and the Russian army. Looking at the prospect of a British entry into the war the Russians decided to settle the dispute. The Treaty of San Stefano gave Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
and Montenegro
, image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg
, coa_size = 80
, national_motto =
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map = Europe-Mont ...
their independence, Serbia and Russia each received extra territory, Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
was given control over Bosnia, and Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
was given almost complete autonomy. The hope of the Sultan was that the other great powers would oppose such a one-sided resolution and a conference would be held to revise it. His hope became reality and in 1878 the Congress of Berlin was held where Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
promised to be an "honest broker" in the treaty's revision. In the new treaty Bulgarian territory was decreased and the war indemnities were cancelled. The conference also again hurt Anglo-Ottoman relations by giving the British the island of Cyprus
Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
. While annoyed at British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British statesman, Conservative Party (UK), Conservative politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a ...
, the Sultan had nothing but praise for Otto von Bismarck
Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg (; born ''Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck''; 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898) was a German statesman and diplomat who oversaw the unification of Germany and served as ...
who forced many of the major concessions upon Russia. These close Germano-Ottoman relations would persist until both empires' very end.
The Russian extension in this century developed with the main theme of supporting independence of Ottomans' former provinces and then bringing all of the Slav peoples of the Balkans under Bulgaria or using Armenians in the east sets the stage. At the end of the century from Russian perspective; Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
, Serbia
, image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg
, national_motto =
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map =
, map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria was achieved. That alarmed the Great Powers. After the Congress of Berlin the Russian expansion was controlled through stopping the expansion of Bulgaria. The Russian public felt that at the end of Congress of Berlin thousands of Russian soldiers had died for nothing.
Sovereignty of Caucasian territories
During the Greek uprising, the Russian Empire reached the Ottoman borders in the Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
, which were located in the southwest of the region, as well as northeastern Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
. Under the terms of the Treaty of Adrianople, the Ottoman Empire recognized Russian sovereignty over western Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States
Georgia may also refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Georgia (name), a list of pe ...
, which was formerly under Ottoman suzerainty, and recognized Russian domination of present-day Armenia
Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
, which had been conquered a year earlier (1828) by the Russians from Qajar Iran
The Guarded Domains of Iran, alternatively the Sublime State of Iran and commonly called Qajar Iran, Qajar Persia or the Qajar Empire, was the Iranian state under the rule of the Qajar dynasty, which was of Turkic peoples, Turkic origin,Cyrus G ...
through the Treaty of Turkmenchay. After the war of 1877–78, Russia also received Kars and Ardahan.
Collapse of Russian and Ottoman empires (1914–1923)
During the early months of World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, Kars was a key military objective for the Ottoman army. Enver Pasha
İsmâil Enver (; ; 23 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), better known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Turkish people, Turkish military officer, revolutionary, and Istanbul trials of 1919–1920, convicted war criminal who was a p ...
who pushed the Ottoman Empire into World War I, needed a victory against the Russians to defend his position. He collected an army on the eastern border. The army was badly defeated under Enver's command at the Battle of Sarikamish January 2, 1915, against Nikolai Yudenich. This defeat was more due to the winter weather and bad planning, given the fact that Russians were actually preparing to evacuate Kars. With the loss of the eastern army, Ottoman defenses crumbled with further small battles and the Russian army succeeded in advancing as far west as Erzincan. The Ottoman army suffered the next heavy defeat in the Battle of Erzurum in 1916, after which the Russian army captured the whole of Western Armenia. After the 1916 campaign, the front remained stable until the Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution was a period of Political revolution (Trotskyism), political and social revolution, social change in Russian Empire, Russia, starting in 1917. This period saw Russia Dissolution of the Russian Empire, abolish its mona ...
.
The collapse of the Russian army after the 1917 revolution left only thinly spread Armenian units to resist the inevitable Ottoman counter-attack. The newly declared First Republic of Armenia
The First Republic of Armenia, officially known at the time of its existence as the Republic of Armenia, was an independent History of Armenia, Armenian state that existed from May (28th ''de jure'', 30th ''de facto'') 1918 to 2 December 1920 in ...
took over Kars in April 1918. That same year in March, the Baku Commune was established in the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. The commune later became the Centrocaspian Dictatorship, in turn conquered by the Ottoman Islamic Army of the Caucasus, then shortly by the Triple Entente and finally the Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
. Defeat on other fronts caused the Ottoman Empire to surrender and withdraw forces. Both the Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
and Azerbaijani Republics ended up being part of the Soviet Union
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
in 1920. The Soviet-Turkish border was established under the Treaty of Moscow (1921).
List of conflicts
See also
* Foreign policy of the Russian Empire
* Foreign policy of the Ottoman Empire
* Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe
** Russo-Crimean Wars
* List of Serbian–Ottoman conflicts
* Caucasian War
* Russo-Persian Wars
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
* Lewitter, Lucjan Ryszard. "The Russo-Polish Treaty of 1686 and Its Antecedents." ''Polish Review'' (1964): 5-2
online
*
*
Further reading
* Ágoston, Gábor "Military transformation in the Ottoman Empire and Russia, 1500–1800." ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 12.2 (2011): 281-31
online
* Allen, William and Paul Muratoff. ''Caucasian Battlefields: A History Of The Wars On The Turco-Caucasian Border 1828-1921'' (2011) ,
*
* Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present'' (1986 and other editions), passim and 1461–1464.
*
* Jelavich, Barbara. ''St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974'' (1974)
* Kagan, Frederick, and Robin Higham, eds. ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia'' (2008)
* Topal, Ali E. "The effects of German Military Commission and Balkan wars on the reorganization and modernization of the Ottoman Army" (Naval Postgraduate School 2013
online
{{DEFAULTSORT:Russo-Turkish Wars
*
Wars involving the Russian Empire
Wars involving the Tsardom of Russia
Wars involving Ukraine
Wars involving Moldavia
Bessarabia Governorate
History of Wallachia
Kingdom of Romania
Modern history of Bulgaria
Early modern history of Georgia (country)
Military operations involving the Crimean Khanate
Invasions of Europe