Roger II ( it, Ruggero II; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
and
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
, son of
Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother
Simon. He began his rule as
Count of Sicily in 1105, became
Duke of Apulia and Calabria in 1127, then
King of Sicily in 1130 and
King of Africa in 1148. By the time of his death at the age of 58, Roger had succeeded in uniting all the
Norman conquests in Italy into one kingdom with a strong
centralized government
A centralized government (also united government) is one in which both executive and legislative power is concentrated centrally at the higher level as opposed to it being more distributed at various lower level governments. In a national conte ...
.
Background
By 999,
Norman adventurers had arrived in southern Italy. By 1016, they were involved in the complex local politics, where Lombards were fighting against the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantin ...
. As mercenaries they fought the enemies of the Italian city-states, sometimes fighting for the Byzantines and sometimes against them, but in the following century they gradually became the rulers of the major
polities south of Rome.
Roger I ruled the
County of Sicily at the time of the birth of his youngest son, Roger, at
Mileto,
Calabria, in 1095. Roger I's nephew,
Roger Borsa, was the
Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and his great nephew,
Richard II of Capua, was the
Prince of Capua. Alongside these three major rulers were a large number of minor
count
Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New Yor ...
s, who effectively exercised sovereign power in their own localities. These counts at least nominally owed allegiance to one of these three Norman rulers, but such allegiance was usually weak and often ignored.
When Roger I died in 1101, his young son
Simon became count, with his mother
Adelaide del Vasto as
regent
A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state ''pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy, ...
. Simon died four years later in 1105, at the age of 12. Adelaide continued as regent to her younger son Roger, who was nine.
Reign
Rise to power in Sicily
Upon the death in 1105 of his elder brother, Simon of Hauteville, Roger inherited the County of Sicily under the regency of his mother, Adelaide del Vasto. His mother was assisted by such notables as
Christodulus, the Greek
emir
Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cer ...
of
Palermo
Palermo ( , ; scn, Palermu , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The city is noted for it ...
. In 1109, Byzantine Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos bestowed upon him the title of ''protonobilissimos'', in recognition of his knowledge of the Byzantine court. In the summer of 1110, Roger was visited by the Norwegian king
Sigurd the Crusader, who was on his way to
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
. The story in Icelandic sources suggests that Sigurd called Roger the king of Sicily twenty years before the latter actually obtained this title.
In 1112, at the age of sixteen, Roger began his personal rule, being named "now knight, now count of Sicily and Calabria" in a charter document dated 12 June 1112. In 1117, his mother, who had married
Baldwin I of Jerusalem
Baldwin I, also known as Baldwin of Boulogne (1060s – 2April 1118), was the first count of Edessa from 1098 to 1100, and king of Jerusalem from 1100 to his death in 1118. He was the youngest son of Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, and Ida of Lo ...
, returned to Sicily, since the patriarch of Jerusalem had declared the marriage invalid. Roger seems to have felt the slight, and this might explain his later reluctance to go crusading. Roger married his first wife,
Elvira, daughter of King
Alfonso VI of Castile and his fourth wife, Isabella, who may be identical to his former concubine, the converted Moor, Zaida, baptised Isabella.
In 1122, Duke
William II of Apulia, who was fighting with Count
Jordan of Ariano, offered to renounce his remaining claims to Sicily as well as part of
Calabria. Roger, in exchange, provided William with 600 knights and access to money for his campaign.
Rise to power in southern Italy
When William II of Apulia died childless in July 1127, Roger claimed all
Hauteville family possessions in the peninsula as well as the overlordship of the
Principality of Capua, which had been nominally given to Apulia almost thirty years earlier. However, the union of Sicily and Apulia was resisted by
Pope Honorius II and by the subjects of the duchy itself.
Royal investiture
The popes had long been suspicious of the growth of Norman power in southern Italy, and at Capua in December, the pope preached a
crusade against Roger, setting
Robert II of Capua and
Ranulf II of Alife (his own brother-in-law) against him. After this coalition failed, in August 1128 Honorius invested Roger at
Benevento
Benevento (, , ; la, Beneventum) is a city and '' comune'' of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, northeast of Naples. It is situated on a hill above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino (or Beneventano) and t ...
as Duke of Apulia. The baronial resistance, backed by
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
,
Bari,
Salerno
Salerno (, , ; nap, label= Salernitano, Saliernë, ) is an ancient city and ''comune'' in Campania (southwestern Italy) and is the capital of the namesake province, being the second largest city in the region by number of inhabitants, after ...
, and other cities whose aim was civic freedom, gave way. In September 1129 Roger was generally recognized as duke of Apulia by
Sergius VII of Naples, Robert of Capua, and the rest. He began at once to enforce order in the duchy, where ducal power had long been fading.
On the death of Pope Honorius in February 1130 there were two claimants to the papal throne. Roger supported
Antipope Anacletus II against
Innocent II. The reward was a crown, and, on 27 September 1130, Anacletus'
papal bull made Roger king of Sicily. He was crowned in
Palermo
Palermo ( , ; scn, Palermu , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The city is noted for it ...
on
Christmas Day
Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year ...
1130.
The Royal Mantle of Roger II
Roger II's elaborate royal
mantle
A mantle is a piece of clothing, a type of cloak. Several other meanings are derived from that.
Mantle may refer to:
*Mantle (clothing), a cloak-like garment worn mainly by women as fashionable outerwear
**Mantle (vesture), an Eastern Orthodox ve ...
bears the year 528 of the
Islamic calendar
The Hijri calendar ( ar, ٱلتَّقْوِيم ٱلْهِجْرِيّ, translit=al-taqwīm al-hijrī), also known in English as the Muslim calendar and Islamic calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 ...
(1133–34); therefore it could not have been used for his coronation. This lavish item, made for special events to show power and regality, was most likely worn as a symbol of the Norman's victory and new dynasty in Sicily.
It was later used as a coronation cloak by the
Holy Roman Emperors and is now in the
Imperial Treasury
Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor, or imperialism.
Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to:
Places
United States
* Imperial, California
* Imperial, Missouri
* Imperial, Nebraska
* Imperial, Pennsylvania
* Imperial, ...
(Schatzkammer) in
Vienna
en, Viennese
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, registration_plate = W
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.
The mantle is an example of the Normans' multicultural court and a mark of trade in Palermo. It is a luxury object made from red silk imported from the Byzantine Empire, its outer panels embellished with gold embroidery, pearls, enamel and jewels.
The lining panels are separated into five sections made from three separate silks, each woven with gold. The pearls are from the
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The bo ...
, with thousands outlining each section of the embroidery. Pearls were a common decoration on pan-Mediterranean textiles, but were also used and admired on clothing of the Byzantine Empire. The enameled surfaces are also attributed to the Byzantine Empire, as they had many craftsmen specializing in this type of work. The gold embroidery was most likely created by Muslim craftsmen, given the
tiraz bands, the Arabic text in calligraphy, and
Kufic script.
The piece was made in a private royal workshop, dedicated to creating tiraz fabric and other royal garments. It is one of few surviving mementos of
Fatimid
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muh ...
-style royal garb preserved in its entirety.
The inscription written in the tiraz band along the bottom of the piece states, "Here is what was created in the princely treasury, filled with luck, eminence, majesty, perfection, long-suffering, superiority, welcome, prosperity, liberality, brilliance, pride, beauty, the fulfillment of desires and hopes, the pleasure of days and nights, without cease or change, of glory, devotion, preservation of protection,luck, salvation, victory and capability, in the capital of Sicily, in the year 528 H.
133–1134 This mantle was made to promote status, bring the wearer good fortune, and to emphasize Roger II's regal power.
In addition to its lavish decoration and color, the mantle uses striking imagery to convey Roger II's power and victory over the previous dynasty. In a scene evoking domination through primal violence, two lions, a
heraldic symbol of a powerful, male ruler, each attack a camel,
addorsed on either side of a central palm tree.
The lions are stylized rather than realistically portrayed. There are also evocations of the cosmos and constellations in the star shapes on the lions' heads. The mantle's pan-Mediterranean influence is brought out in the materials used to create it, the way it was made, and its design.
Peninsular rebellions
Roger's backing of Anacletus plunged him into a ten-year war.
Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard of Clairvaux, Cistercians, O. Cist. ( la, Bernardus Claraevallensis; 109020 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard, was an abbot, Mysticism, mystic, co-founder of the Knights Templars, and a major leader in the reformation of the Bened ...
, Innocent's champion, organized a coalition against Anacletus and his "half-heathen king". He was joined by
Louis VI of France
Louis VI (late 1081 – 1 August 1137), called the Fat (french: link=no, le Gros) or the Fighter (french: link=no, le Batailleur), was King of the Franks from 1108 to 1137.
Chronicles called him "King of Saint-Denis". Louis was the first member ...
,
Henry I of England
Henry I (c. 1068 – 1 December 1135), also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death in 1135. He was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin and the liberal arts. On William's death in ...
, and
Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor. Meanwhile, southern Italy revolted.
In 1130, the
Duchy of Amalfi revolted and in 1131, Roger sent
John of Palermo across the
Strait of Messina to join up with a royal troop from Apulia and Calabria and march on Amalfi by land while
George of Antioch
George of Antioch ( gr, Γεώργιος Ἀντιοχείας, died 1151 or 1152) was the first to hold the office of '' ammiratus ammiratorum'' (emir of emirs) in the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. He was a Syrian-born Byzantine Christian of Gree ...
blockaded the town by sea and set up a base on
Capri
Capri ( , ; ; ) is an island located in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the Sorrento Peninsula, on the south side of the Gulf of Naples in the Campania region of Italy. The main town of Capri that is located on the island shares the name. It has bee ...
. Amalfi soon capitulated.
In 1132, Roger sent
Robert II of Capua and
Ranulf II of Alife to
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
in a show of force in support of Anacletus. While they were away, Roger's half-sister Matilda, Ranulf's wife, fled to Roger claiming abuse. Simultaneously, Roger annexed Ranulf's brother's County of
Avellino
Avellino () is a town and ''comune'', capital of the province of Avellino in the Campania region of southern Italy. It is situated in a plain surrounded by mountains east of Naples and is an important hub on the road from Salerno to Benevento.
...
. Ranulf demanded the restitution of both wife and countship. Both were denied, and Ranulf left Rome against orders, with Robert following.
First Roger dealt with a rebellion in Apulia, where he defeated and deposed
Grimoald, Prince of Bari, replacing him with his second son
Tancred
Tancred or Tankred is a masculine given name of Germanic origin that comes from ''thank-'' (thought) and ''-rath'' (counsel), meaning "well-thought advice". It was used in the High Middle Ages mainly by the Normans (see French Tancrède) and espec ...
. Meanwhile, Robert and Ranulf took papal
Benevento
Benevento (, , ; la, Beneventum) is a city and '' comune'' of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, northeast of Naples. It is situated on a hill above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino (or Beneventano) and t ...
. Roger went to meet them but was defeated at the
Battle of Nocera on 25 July 1132. He retreated to Salerno.
The next year, Lothair III came down to Rome for his imperial coronation. The rebel leaders met him there, but they were refused help because Lothair's force was too small. With the emperor's departure, divisions in his opponents' ranks allowed Roger to reverse his fortunes. By July 1134, his troops had forced Ranulf, Sergius, and the other ringleaders to submit. Robert was expelled from Capua and Roger installed his third son,
Alfonso of Hauteville, as Prince of Capua. Roger II's eldest son
Roger
Roger is a given name, usually masculine, and a surname. The given name is derived from the Old French personal names ' and '. These names are of Germanic origin, derived from the elements ', ''χrōþi'' ("fame", "renown", "honour") and ', ' ...
was given the title of Duke of Apulia.
Meanwhile, Lothair's contemplated attack upon Roger had gained the backing of the
Republic of Pisa
The Republic of Pisa ( it, Repubblica di Pisa) was an independent state centered on the Tuscan city of Pisa, which existed from the 11th to the 15th century. It rose to become an economic powerhouse, a commercial center whose merchants dominated ...
, the
Republic of Genoa
The Republic of Genoa ( lij, Repúbrica de Zêna ; it, Repubblica di Genova; la, Res Publica Ianuensis) was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the 11th century to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the L ...
, and the
Byzantine emperor
This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as l ...
John II, each of whom feared the growth of a powerful Norman kingdom. A Pisan fleet led by the exiled prince of Capua dropped anchor off Naples in 1135. Ranulf joined Robert and Sergius there, encouraged by news coming from Sicily that Roger was fatally ill or even already dead. The important fortress of
Aversa, among others, passed to the rebels and only Capua resisted, under the royal chancellor,
Guarin. On June 5, however, Roger disembarked in Salerno, much to the surprise of all the mainland provinces. The royal army, split into several forces, easily conquered Aversa and even Alife, the base of the natural rebel leader, Ranulf. Most of the rebels took refuge in
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
, which was besieged in July, but despite poor health conditions within the city, Roger was unable to take it, and returned to
Messina
Messina (, also , ) is a harbour city and the capital city, capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of more than 219,000 in ...
late in the year.
Imperial invasion
In 1136, the long-awaited imperial army, led by Lothair and the
Duke of Bavaria
The following is a list of rulers during the history of Bavaria. Bavaria was ruled by several dukes and kings, partitioned and reunited, under several dynasties. Since 1949, Bavaria has been a democratic state in the Federal Republic of Germ ...
,
Henry the Proud, descended the peninsula to support the three rebels. Henry, Robert, and Ranulf took a large contingent of troops to besiege the peninsular capital of the kingdom,
Salerno
Salerno (, , ; nap, label= Salernitano, Saliernë, ) is an ancient city and ''comune'' in Campania (southwestern Italy) and is the capital of the namesake province, being the second largest city in the region by number of inhabitants, after ...
. Roger remained in Sicily, leaving its mainland garrisons helpless under the chancellor
Robert of Selby, while even the Byzantine emperor
John II Comnenus sent subsidies to Lothair. Salerno surrendered, and the large army of Germans and Normans marched to the very south of Apulia. There, in June 1137, Lothair besieged and took
Bari. At
San Severino, after the victorious campaign, he and the pope jointly invested Ranulf as Duke of Apulia in August 1137, and the emperor then retired to Germany. Roger, freed from the utmost danger, immediately disembarked in Calabria, at
Tropea, with 400 knights and other troops, probably mostly
Muslims
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abra ...
. After having been welcomed by the Salernitans, he recovered ground in
Campania
(man), it, Campana (woman)
, population_note =
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, population_blank1 =
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, demographics1_title1 =
, demographics1_info1 =
, demog ...
, sacking
Pozzuoli, Alife, Capua, and Avellino. Sergius was forced to acknowledge him as overlord of Naples and switch his allegiance to Anacletus. This moment marked the fall of an independent Neapolitan duchy, and thereafter the ancient city was fully integrated into the Norman realm.
From there Roger moved to Benevento and northern Apulia, where Duke Ranulf, although steadily losing his bases of power, had some German troops plus some 1,500 knights from the cities of
Melfi,
Trani
Trani () is a seaport of Apulia, in southern Italy, on the Adriatic Sea, by railway west-northwest of Bari. It is one of the capital cities of the Province of Barletta-Andria-Trani.
History
Overview
The city of ''Turenum'' appears for the fir ...
,
Troia, and Bari, who were "ready to die rather than lead a miserable life". On 30 October 1137, at the
Battle of Rignano (next to
Monte Gargano), the younger Roger and his father, with Sergius of Naples, met the defensive army of Duke Ranulf. It was the greatest defeat of Roger II's career. Sergius died and Roger fled to Salerno. It capped Ranulf's meteoric career: twice victor over Roger. Anacletus II died in January 1138, but Innocent II refused to reconcile with the king.
In spring 1138, the royal army invaded the
Principality of Capua, with the precise intent of avoiding a pitched battle and of dispersing Ranulf's army with a series of marches through difficult terrain. While the Count of Alife hesitated, Roger, now supported by Benevento, destroyed all the rebels' castles in the region, capturing an immense booty. In April 1139, at the Second Council of the Lateran, Innocent II declared Roger excommunicated. Ranulf himself, who had taken refuge in his capital Troia, died of malarial fever on 30 April 1139. Roger exhumed his body from his grave in Troia cathedral and threw it in a ditch, only to repent subsequently and rebury him decently.
At this time, with Sergius dead, Alfonso was elected to replace him and together with his brother Roger went off to conquer the
Abruzzi.
Consolidation of kingship
After the death of Anacletus in January 1138, Roger had sought the confirmation of his title from Innocent. However, the pope wanted an independent Principality of Capua as a buffer state between the
Kingdom of Sicily
The Kingdom of Sicily ( la, Regnum Siciliae; it, Regno di Sicilia; scn, Regnu di Sicilia) was a state that existed in the south of the Italian Peninsula and for a time the region of Ifriqiya from its founding by Roger II of Sicily in 1130 un ...
and the
Papal States
The Papal States ( ; it, Stato Pontificio, ), officially the State of the Church ( it, Stato della Chiesa, ; la, Status Ecclesiasticus;), were a series of territories in the Italian Peninsula under the direct Sovereignty, sovereign rule of ...
, something Roger would not accept. In the summer of 1139, Innocent II invaded the kingdom with a large army, but was ambushed on 22 July 1139 at
Galluccio, southeast of present-day
Cassino, by Roger's son and was captured. Three days later, by the
Treaty of Mignano, the pope proclaimed Roger II ''rex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae'' (King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia and commander of Capua). The boundaries of his ''regno'' were only later fixed by a truce with the pope in October 1144. These lands were for the next seven centuries to constitute the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily.
In 1139, Bari, the 50,000 inhabitants of which had remained unscathed behind its massive walls during the wars of the past year, decided to surrender. The ''excellentissimus princeps''
Jaquintus, who had led the rebellion of the city, was hanged, along with many of his followers, but the city avoided being sacked. Roger's execution of the prince and his counsellors was perhaps the most violent act of his life.
While his sons overcame pockets of resistance on the mainland, on 5 November 1139 Roger returned to Palermo to plan a great act of legislation: the
Assizes of Ariano, an attempt to establish his dominions in southern Italy as a coherent state. He returned to check on his sons' progress in 1140 and then went to
Ariano, a town central to the peninsular possessions (and a center of rebellion under his predecessors). There he promulgated the great law regulating all
Sicilian affairs. It invested the king and his bureaucracy with absolute powers and reduced the authority of the often rebellious vassals. While there, centralising his kingdom, Roger declared a new standard coinage, named after the duchy of Apulia: the ''
ducat
The ducat () coin was used as a trade coin in Europe from the later Middle Ages from the 13th to 19th centuries. Its most familiar version, the gold ducat or sequin containing around of 98.6% fine gold, originated in Venice in 1284 and gained ...
.''
Economy
Roger’s reforms in laws and administration aimed not only to strengthen his rule but also to improve the economic standing of Sicily and
southern Italy
Southern Italy ( it, Sud Italia or ) also known as ''Meridione'' or ''Mezzogiorno'' (), is a macroregion of the Italian Republic consisting of its southern half.
The term ''Mezzogiorno'' today refers to regions that are associated with the peop ...
. He was "very concerned to gain money, but hardly very prodigal in expending it".
In 1140 at his assembly at Ariano he introduced new coinage including smaller denominations, to facilitate trade with the rest of the Mediterranean. However, although this new coinage made long-distance trade easier, it was detrimental to local trade, which spread "hatred throughout Italy". By the 1150s most of this coinage was no longer in use and soon after, it disappeared altogether.
Nevertheless, the controversy over the coinage did not hinder the Kingdom's prosperity. Roger II had acquired large wealth not only through his royal patrimony but also through his military campaigns and their financial rewards. For example, gold and silver were gained through the campaigns in Apulia in 1133 and Greece in 1147.
Sicily's geographic situation at the centre of the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on th ...
favored trade with Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Its primary export was
durum wheat; others included foods like cheese and vine fruits. Unlike other states, Sicily also had a strong political and military standing, so its merchants were supported and to some extent protected. This standing allowed for an increase in internal trade and a stronger market, which led to noticeable developments in agriculture.
Later reign
Roger had now become one of the greatest kings in Europe. At Palermo, he gathered round him distinguished men of various races, such as the famous
Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi and the Byzantine
Greek historian
Hellenic historiography (or Greek historiography) involves efforts made by Greeks to track and record historical events. By the 5th century BC, it became an integral part of ancient Greek literature and held a prestigious place in later Roman hist ...
Nilus Doxopatrius or
Neilos Doxapatres. Sicily, in the center of the Mediterranean and a natural stopping point for people traveling across it, had been run by several different groups in its history, and Roger welcomed the learned and practiced tolerance toward the several creeds, races and languages of his realm. To administer his domain he hired many
Greeks
The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, Albania, Greeks in Italy, ...
and
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
s, who were trained in long-established traditions of centralized government. He was served by men of several nationalities, such as the Englishman
Thomas Brun, a ''
kaid'' of the ''Curia'', and in the fleet by two Greeks, first Christodulus and then
George of Antioch
George of Antioch ( gr, Γεώργιος Ἀντιοχείας, died 1151 or 1152) was the first to hold the office of '' ammiratus ammiratorum'' (emir of emirs) in the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. He was a Syrian-born Byzantine Christian of Gree ...
, whom he made in 1132 ''ammiratus ammiratorum'' or "Emir of Emirs", in effect prime
vizier
A vizier (; ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called '' katib'' (secretary), who was ...
. (This title later became the English word
admiral). Roger made Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean.
A powerful fleet was built up under several admirals, or "emirs", of whom the greatest was George, formerly in the service of the Muslim prince of
Mahdia
Mahdia ( ar, المهدية ') is a Tunisian coastal city with 62,189 inhabitants, south of Monastir and southeast of Sousse.
Mahdia is a provincial centre north of Sfax. It is important for the associated fish-processing industry, as well as w ...
. Mainly thanks to him, a
series of conquests were made on the African coast (1146–1153). From 1135 Roger II started to conquer the coast of Tunisia and enlarge his dominions:
Tripoli
Tripoli or Tripolis may refer to:
Cities and other geographic units Greece
*Tripoli, Greece, the capital of Arcadia, Greece
*Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece
* Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in t ...
was captured in 1146 and
Cape Bona in 1148. These conquests were lost in the reign of Roger's successor William, however, and never formed an integral part of the kingdom in southern Italy.
The
Second Crusade (1147–1148) offered Roger an opportunity to
revive attacks on the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantin ...
, the traditional Norman enemy to the East. It also afforded him an opportunity, through the agency of
Theodwin, a cardinal ever-vigilant for Crusade supporters, to strike up a correspondence with
Conrad III of Germany in an effort to break his alliance with
Manuel I Comnenus. Roger himself never went on an expedition against Byzantium, instead handing command to the skillful George. In 1147, George set sail from
Otranto with seventy galleys to attack
Corfu. According to
Nicetas Choniates, the island capitulated thanks to George's bribes (and the tax burden of the imperial government), welcoming the Normans as their liberators. Leaving a garrison of 1,000 men, George sailed on to the
Peloponnesus. He sacked
Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh List ...
and quickly moved on to the
Aegean Islands. He ravaged the coast all along
Euboea and the
Gulf of Corinth and penetrated as far as
Thebes, where he pillaged the silk factories and carried off the Jewish damask, brocade, and silk weavers, taking them back to Palermo where they formed the basis for the Sicilian silk industry. George capped the expedition with a sack of
Corinth
Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part ...
, in which the relics of
Saint Theodore were stolen, and then returned to Sicily. In 1149, however, Corfu was retaken. George went on a
punitive expedition
A punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a political entity or any group of people outside the borders of the punishing state or union. It is usually undertaken in response to perceived disobedient or morally wrong beh ...
against Constantinople, but could not land and instead defied the Byzantine emperor by firing arrows against the palace windows. Despite this act, his expedition left no enduring effects.
Roger died at
Palermo
Palermo ( , ; scn, Palermu , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The city is noted for it ...
on 26 February 1154 and was buried in the
Cathedral of Palermo. He was succeeded by his fourth son,
William
William is a masculine given name of Norman French origin.Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 276. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conq ...
.
Modern legacy
Roger is the subject of ''
King Roger'', a 1926 opera by Polish composer
Karol Szymanowski. The last months of his life are also featured in
Tariq Ali's book ''A Sultan in Palermo''. Studiorum Universitas Ruggero II, a private non-traditional university connected to
Accademia Normanna was incorporated in the U.S. on April 30, 2001 in his honor.
Family
Roger's first marriage was in 1117 to
Elvira, a daughter of King
Alfonso VI of Castile. When she died, rumors flew that Roger had died as well, as his grief had made him a recluse. They had six children:
*
Roger
Roger is a given name, usually masculine, and a surname. The given name is derived from the Old French personal names ' and '. These names are of Germanic origin, derived from the elements ', ''χrōþi'' ("fame", "renown", "honour") and ', ' ...
(1118 – 12 May 1148), heir,
Duke of Apulia (from 1135), possibly also Count of
Lecce
*
Tancred
Tancred or Tankred is a masculine given name of Germanic origin that comes from ''thank-'' (thought) and ''-rath'' (counsel), meaning "well-thought advice". It was used in the High Middle Ages mainly by the Normans (see French Tancrède) and espec ...
(1119–1138), Prince of Bari (from 1135)
*
Alfonso (''c.'' 1120 – 10 October 1144),
Prince of Capua (from 1135) and
Duke of Naples
The Dukes of Naples were the military commanders of the '' ducatus Neapolitanus'', a Byzantine outpost in Italy, one of the few remaining after the conquest of the Lombards. In 661, Emperor Constans II, highly interested in south Italian affairs ...
* A daughter (died young in 1135)
*
William
William is a masculine given name of Norman French origin.Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 276. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conq ...
(1120/1121 – 7 May 1166), his successor,
Duke of Apulia (from 1148)
* Henry (1135 – died young)
Roger's second marriage was in 1149 to
Sibylla, daughter of
Hugh II, Duke of Burgundy
Hugh II of Burgundy (1084 – c. 6 February 1143) was Duke of Burgundy between 1103 and 1143. Hugh was son of Odo I, Duke of Burgundy. Hugh was selected ''custos'' for the monastery of St. Benigne, and this office would be held by his descen ...
. They had two children:
* Henry (29 August 1149 – died young)
* Stillborn child (16 September 1150)
Roger's third marriage was in 1151 to
Beatrice of Rethel
Beatrice of Rethel (1130/35 – 30 March 1185) was a French noblewoman and Queen of Sicily as the third wife of Roger II.
Family
Beatrice was born in 1130 or 1135, the eldest daughter and one of the nine children of Guitier of Rethel and Beatri ...
, a grandniece of King
Baldwin II of Jerusalem
Baldwin II, also known as Baldwin of Bourcq or Bourg (; – 21August 1131), was Count of Edessa from 1100 to 1118, and King of Jerusalem from 1118 until his death. He accompanied his cousins Godfrey of Bouillon and Baldwin of Boulogne to the ...
. They had one daughter:
*
Constance (born posthumously, 2 November 1154 – 28 November 1198), who married
Emperor Henry VI and was later Queen of Sicily
Roger also had five known illegitimate children:
—By a daughter of Hugues I, Count of Molise:
*
Simon, who became
Prince of Taranto in 1144
—With unknown mistresses:
* A daughter, wife of Rodrigo Garcés (later
Henry, Count of Montescaglioso)
* A daughter, wife of the Neapolitan nobleman Adam
* Clemenza, married Hugues II, Count of Molise
* Adelisa (died after 1184/87) married firstly Joscelin, Count of Loreto, and secondly
Robert of Bassonville, Count of Loritello
* Marina, married the admiral
Margaritus of Brindisi
See also
*
Palazzo dei Normanni (palace)
Notes
References
Works cited
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*Dolezalek, Isabelle (2013). "Textile Connections? Two Ifrīqiyan Church Treasuries in Norman Sicily and the Problem of Continuity across Political Change" ''Al-Masaq.'' 92–112
* Kapitaikin, Lev A. (2017). "Sicily and the Staging of Multiculturalism" ''A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture'' John Wiley and Sons Inc. 378–404
* "Quantara – Mantle of Roger II of Sicily" www.qantara-med.org.
*
*
General references
*
Alexander of Telese, ''The Deeds of Roger''.
*
*
Aubé, Pierre. ''Roger II de Sicile''. 2001.
*Hamel, Pasquale ''L'invenzione del regno, dalla conquista normanna alla fondazione del Regnum Siciliae (1061/1154)'' (Palermo, 2009)
*Holmes, George, ''The Oxford IllustratedHistory of Medieval Europe''. OUP, 1988.
*
* Alex Metcalf
''The Muslims of Medieval Italy''(Edinburgh, 2009)
*Francois Neveux. ''The Normans'', Constable & Robinson, London, 2008 (translated by Howard Curtis).
*
Norwich, John Julius. ''The Normans in the South 1016–1130''. Longmans:
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
, 1967.
*
Norwich, John Julius. ''The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194''. Longman:
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
, 1970.
*Rowe, John Gordon.
The Papacy and the Greeks (1122-1153) (Part II). ''Church History'', Vol. 28, No. 3. (Sep., 1959), pp 310–327.
*Wieruszowski, Helen.
Roger II of Sicily, Rex-Tyrannus, In Twelfth-Century Political Thought. ''Speculum'', Vol. 38, No. 1. (Jan., 1963), pp 46–78.
External links
*''
ttps://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/197704/al-idrisi.and.roger.s.book.htm Al-Idrisi And Roger’s Book'', written by Frances Carney Gies.
Assizes of ArianoBoth codices in Latin.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Roger 02 of Sicily
1095 births
1154 deaths
12th-century Kings of Sicily
Medieval child rulers
Burials at Palermo Cathedral
Christians of the Second Crusade
Dukes of Apulia
Norman warriors
Hauteville family
Italo-Normans
People of the Byzantine–Norman wars
Sons of kings
Counts of Malta
People from Mileto