Raphignathoidea is a

superfamily SUPERFAMILY is a database and search platform of structural and functional annotation for all proteins and genomes. It classifies amino acid sequences into known structural domains, especially into SCOP superfamilies. Domains are functional, str ...

of the Acari (

mite Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods). Mites span two large orders of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, which were historically grouped together in the subclass Acari, but genetic analysis does not show clear evid ...

)

order Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood * Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...

Trombidiformes The Trombidiformes are a large, diverse order of mites. Taxonomy In 1998, Trombidiformes was divided into the Sphaerolichida and the Prostigmata. The group has few synapomorphies by which it can be defined, unlike the other major group of aca ...

, comprising 1087

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

in 62

genera Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...

and 12

families Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideall ...

Morphology

Adult Raphignathoidea are generally oval or round in shape, with 2 pairs of vertical setae on the prodorsum (rarely 3), 2 pairs of scapular setae (rarely 1 or 3), and eyes and postocular bodies usually present. The second and third leg pairs are separated by a gap except in families Cryptognathidae and Raphignathidae. The legs usually bear tarsal claws at the ends. Females and males look similar except that males are often tapered posteriorly, the first and second pseudanal setae are often reduced, the genital and anal openings are fused, and an

aedeagus An aedeagus (plural aedeagi) is a reproductive organ of male arthropods through which they secrete sperm from the testes during copulation with a female. It can be thought of as the insect equivalent of a mammal's penis, though the comparison ...

(male reproductive organ) is present.

Life cycle

Most Raphignathoidea have five life stages: egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph and adult. The species ''Agistemus exsertus'' also has a prelarval stage, while the genus ''Raphignathus'' and the family Xenocaligonellididae also have a third nymphal stage, the tritonymph. It generally takes 1-3 weeks for a raphignathoid mite to go from egg to adult, depending on factors such as temperature and diet, with the egg stage having the longest duration. Males develop slightly faster than females. Adult females that have mated produce mostly female offspring (female-biased

sex ratio The sex ratio (or gender ratio) is usually defined as the ratio of males to females in a population. As explained by Fisher's principle, for evolutionary reasons this is typically about 1:1 in species which reproduce sexually. Many species devia ...

). Unmated females can also produce offspring, but these offspring are all male (

arrhenotoky Arrhenotoky (from Greek -τόκος ''-tókos'' "birth of -" + ἄρρην ''árrhēn'' "male person"), also known as arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, is a form of parthenogenesis in which unfertilized eggs develop into males. In most cases, parthen ...

). Females generally lay 1-4 eggs a day (the rate depending on temperature and diet) over a 1-2 week period.

Ecology

Raphignathoidea contains many

predator Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill th ...

s of small

invertebrate Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''backbone'' or ''spine''), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate ...

s, including

scale insect Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the ...

crawlers (Coccoidea),

whiteflies Whiteflies are Hemipterans that typically feed on the undersides of plant leaves. They comprise the family Aleyrodidae, the only family in the superfamily Aleyrodoidea. More than 1550 species have been described. Description and taxonomy The ...

(Aleyrodidae), caterpillars and other mites. Some Stigmaeidae are

herbivore A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpart ...

s feeding on moss, and some Xenocaligonellididae may be microherbivores feeding on substances on the outer layer of tree bark. There are parasitic and possibly parasitic raphignathoids in the families Stigmaeidae, Dasythyreidae and Dytiscacaridae. Stigmaeidae have been found on sandflies ( Phlebotominae), a species of Dasythyreidae has been found on eyed-click beetle (''Alaus myops''), while Dytiscacaridae are highly specialised parasites living beneath the elytra of aquatic beetles ( Dytiscidae). The superfamily occurs in a range of microhabitats including leaves, branches, tree bark, tree cavities, moss, lichen, animal nests, soil, leaf litter, house dust and stored food products. A few species of Homocaligidae and Stigmaeidae are even aquatic or semi-aquatic.

Distribution

Raphignathoidea mites are abundant on most

continent A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, these seven ...

s, including a few (e.g. ''Raphignathus johnstoni'') that have colonized

Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean, it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest contine ...

. However, those of the

Neotropical realm The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In bioge ...

(

Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...

and

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...

) have received relatively little attention.

Biological control

The predatory Raphignathoidea are of some commercial importance, as many are suitable for

biological pest control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also invo ...

. They are bred and released to control such plant

pest Pest or The Pest may refer to: Science and medicine * Pest (organism), an animal or plant deemed to be detrimental to humans or human concerns ** Weed, a plant considered undesirable * Infectious disease, an illness resulting from an infection ** ...

s as

gall mite Eriophyidae is a family of more than 200 genera of mites, which live as plant parasites, commonly causing galls or other damage to the plant tissues and hence known as gall mites. About 3,600 species have been described, but this is probably ...

s (Eriophyidae),

spider mite Spider mites are members of the Tetranychidae family, which includes about 1,200 species. They are part of the subclass Acari (mites). Spider mites generally live on the undersides of leaves of plants, where they may spin protective silk webs, a ...

s (Tetranychidae) or scale insects in

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...

and

forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. Th ...

Evolution

One raphignathoid species, ''Neophyllobius succineus'' ( Camerobiidae), was discovered in

Baltic amber The Baltic region is home to the largest known deposit of amber, called Baltic amber or succinite. It was produced sometime during the Eocene epoch, but exactly when is controversial. It has been estimated that these forests created more than 1 ...

of the Upper

Eocene The Eocene ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period (geology), Period in the modern Cenozoic Era (geology), Era. The name ''Eocene' ...

(38–33.9 million years ago).

Families

Most raphignathoid species are in the family Stigmaeidae, with the remaining families being relatively small. Additionally, most of the Raphignathoidea were discovered from 1944 onwards (the year in which family Caligonellidae was described). * Barbutiidae Robaux, 1975 * Caligonellididae Grandjean, 1944 * Camerobiidae Southcott, 1957 * Cryptognathidae Oudemans, 1902 * Dasythyreidae Walter & Gerson, 1998 * Dytiscacaridae Hajiqanbar & Lindquist, 2018 * Eupalopsellidae Willmann, 1952 * Homocaligidae Wood, 1970 * Mecognathidae Gerson & Walter, 1998 * Raphignathidae Kramer, 1877 * Stigmaeidae Oudemans, 1931 * Xenocaligonellididae Gonzalez, 1978

References

External links

Checklist of raphignathoid mites (Acari: Raphignathoidea) of Turkey

Raphignathoidea of China: a review of research progress
{{Taxonbar, from=Q4048024 Arachnid superfamilies