The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit

epic Epic commonly refers to: * Epic poetry, a long narrative poem celebrating heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation * Epic film, a genre of film with heroic elements Epic or EPIC may also refer to: Arts, entertainment, and medi ...

composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. ''Ramayana'' is one of the two important epics of Hinduism, the other being the ''

Mahābhārata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

''. The epic, traditionally ascribed to the Maharishi Valmiki, narrates the life of Sita, the Princess of Janakpur, and Rama, a legendary prince of Ayodhya city in the kingdom of

Kosala The Kingdom of Kosala (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indian kingdom with a rich culture, corresponding to the area within the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh to Western Odisha. It emerged as a janapada, small state during the late Ve ...

. The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest urged by his father King Dasharatha, on the request of Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi; his travels across forests in the Indian subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana – the king of

Lanka Lanka (, ) is the name given in Hindu epics to the island fortress capital of the legendary asura king Ravana in the epics of the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata''. The fortress was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks known ...

, that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya to be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration. The ''Ramayana'' is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka/ Anustubh meter), divided into seven Khanda (parts) the first and the seventh being later additions. It belongs to the genre of ''

Itihasa Itihasa () refers to the collection of written descriptions of important events in Hinduism. It includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata includes the story of the Kurukshetra War and preserves the traditions of ...

'', narratives of past events (), interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life. There are many versions of ''Ramayana'' in Indian languages, besides Buddhist,

Sikh Sikhs ( or ; pa, ਸਿੱਖ, ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism, Sikhism (Sikhi), a Monotheism, monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Gu ...

and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian (

Reamker ''Reamker'' ( km, រាមកេរ្តិ៍, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ; ) is a Cambodian epic poem, based on the Sanskrit's Rāmāyana epic. The name means "Glory of Rama". It is the national epic of Cambodia. The earliest mention of this epic's ...

), Indonesian, Filipino,

Thai Thai or THAI may refer to: * Of or from Thailand, a country in Southeast Asia ** Thai people, the dominant ethnic group of Thailand ** Thai language, a Tai-Kadai language spoken mainly in and around Thailand *** Thai script *** Thai (Unicode block ...

( Ramakien), Lao,

Burmese Burmese may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Myanmar, a country in Southeast Asia * Burmese people * Burmese language * Burmese alphabet * Burmese cuisine * Burmese culture Animals * Burmese cat * Burmese chicken * Burmese (hor ...

and

Malay Malay may refer to: Languages * Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore ** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century ** Indonesi ...

versions of the tale. The ''Ramayana'' was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and the Hindu life and culture, and its main characters were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of

South-East Asian Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainland ...

nations, both Hindu and Buddhist. Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (from , - a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society.

Etymology

The name is composed of two words, and . , the name of the central figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In the

Atharvaveda The Atharva Veda (, ' from ' and ''veda'', meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of ''atharvāṇas'', the procedures for everyday life".Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Sushil Mittal and G ...

, it means 'dark, dark-coloured, black' and is related to the word which means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata, is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'.Monier Monier Williams
राम
Sanskrit English Dictionary with EtymologyMonier Monier Williams

Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology The word means travel or journey. Thus, means "Rama's progress", with altered to due to the Sanskrit grammar rule of internal sandhi.Monier Monier Williams
अयन
Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology

Textual characteristics

Genre

The ''Ramayana'' belongs to the genre of ''

'', narratives of past events (), which includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas, and the Ramayana. The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human life. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal husband, and the ideal king. Like the ''Mahabharata'', ''Ramayana'' presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrative

allegory As a literary device or artistic form, an allegory is a narrative or visual representation in which a character, place, or event can be interpreted to represent a hidden meaning with moral or political significance. Authors have used allegory th ...

, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements.

Structure

In its extant form, Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' is an epic poem of some 24,000 verses, divided into seven s (Bālakāṇḍa, Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa, Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters).

Dating

According to

Robert P. Goldman Robert Philip Goldman (born 1942)Entry
at

8th century BCE The 8th century BCE started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. The 8th century BC is a period of great change for several historically significant civilizations. In Egypt, the 23rd and 24th dynasties lead to rule from N ...

. This is due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism nor the prominence of Magadha. The text also mentions Ayodhya as the capital of

, rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital of Shravasti. In terms of narrative time, the action of the ''Ramayana'' predates the '' Mahabharata''. Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda, respectively) seem to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi to the present toward this consensus.

Recensions

The ''Ramayana'' text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholar

Robert P. Goldman Robert Philip Goldman (born 1942)Entry
at

Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the ''Ramayana'', like the ''Mahabharata'', is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind." A ''Times of India'' report dated 18 December 2015 informs about the discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the ''Ramayana'' at the Asiatic Society library, Kolkata. There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) of Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' were composed by the original author. The uttarākāṇḍa, the bālakāṇḍa, although frequently counted among the main ones, is not a part of the original epic. Though Balakanda is sometimes considered in the main epic, according to many Uttarakanda is certainly a later interpolation and thus is not attributed to the work of Maharshi Valmiki. This fact is reaffirmed by the absence of these two Kāndas in the oldest manuscript. Many Hindus don't believe they are integral parts of the scripture because of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest.

Characters

Synopsis

''Bāla Kāṇḍa''

Ramayana - Marriage of Rama Bharata Lakshmana and Shatrughna

The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a righteous man still left in the world, to which Nārada replies that such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates a new form of meter called ''śloka'', and then is granted the ability to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the court of king Rāma, which then begins the main narrative. Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā, Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have a son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi. Meanwhile the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣṇu about Rāvaṇa, king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣṇu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon

Rāvaṇa Ravana (; , , ) is a rakshasa king of the island of Lanka, and the chief antagonist of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'' and its adaptations. In the ''Ramayana'', Ravana is described to be the eldest son of sage Vishrava and rakshasi Kaikesi. He a ...

. As a consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to Kaikeyī, Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā. When Rāma was 16 years old, the r̥ṣi (sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the court of Daśaratha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to destroy Tāṭakā and many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much lore of the landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the princes. The party then decide to go to attend king Janaka's sacrifice in the kingdom of Mithilā, who has a bow that no one has been able to string. Once there, Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughter

Sītā Sita (; ) also called as Janaki and Vaidehi is a Hindu goddess and the female protagonist of the Hindu epic, ''Ramayana''. She is the consort of Rama, the avatar of the god Vishnu, and is regarded as a form of Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi. She ...

, whom he had found in the earth when plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not only string the bow, but snap it in the process. Marriages were arranged between the sons of Daśaratha and daughters and nieces of Janaka. Rāma marries Sītā, as do the brothers of Rāma to the sisters of Sītā. The weddings were celebrated with great festivity in Mithilā and the marriage party returns to Ayodhyā.

''Ayodhyā Kāṇḍa''

After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī was happy about this, but was later on provoked by Mantharā, a wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyī demands Rāma to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyī's demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to remain with him in exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow brother into the forest. After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rāma in the forest. He requests Rāma to return and rule. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Rama leaving for fourteen years of exile from Ayodhya

Rama leaving for fourteen years of exile from Ayodhya

''Aranya Kanda''

After thirteen years of exile, Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana journey southward along the banks of the river Godavari, where they build cottages and live off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasi named Shurpanakha, sister of Ravana. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothers

Khara Khara can refer to Places * Khara, Iran, a village in Isfahan Province, Iran * Khara-Khoto, the ruins of a medieval city in western Mongolia * Khara, Pakistan, a town in Punjab, Pakistan * Khara, Nepal, a village in Nepal * Khara, Raebareli, a vil ...

and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas. When the news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the ''rakshasa'' Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Rama, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time, Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama cannot be hurt that easily and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshman's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rama. With the coast finally clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sita is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Ravana. Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita but is mortally wounded. In Lanka, Sita is kept under the guard of ''rakshasis''. Ravana asks Sita to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet Kabandha and the ascetic

Shabari Sabari (, sa, शबरी) is an elderly woman ascetic in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. She is described as an ardently devoted woman who received Rama's darshana and blessing due to her bhakti to him. Story Shabari was a woman from a vill ...

, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.

''Kishkindha Kanda''

Stone bas relief at Banteay Srei in Cambodia

Citadel ''Kishkindha Kanda'' is set in the place of

Vanara In Hindu, Vanara ( sa, वानर, , forest-dwellers) are either monkeys, apes, or a race of forest-dwelling people. In the epic the ''Ramayana'', the Vanaras help Rama defeat Ravana. They are generally depicted as humanoid apes, or human-l ...

s (Vana-nara) - Forest dwelling humans. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the biggest devotee of Rama, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of

Sugriva ''This character is about the vanara, in the Ramayana.'' Sugriva ( sa, सुग्रीव, , ) is a character In the ancient Indian epic Ramayana. He is the younger brother of Vali, whom he succeeded as ruler of the vanara kingdom of Kishk ...

, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha. Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kishkindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita. However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tara (wife of Vali) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Angada and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati (elder brother of Jatayu), that Sita was taken to Lanka.

''Sundara Kanda''

''Sundara Kanda'' forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's heroics. After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing a Gandharva Kanya who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Mainakudu who offers Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Hanuman refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sita. After entering Lanka, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of Lanka. Hanuman fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lanka. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lanka nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanuman explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. Hanuman reassures Sita, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign that Rama is still alive. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramayana will not have significance if Hanuman carries her to Rama – "When Rama is not there Ravana carried Sita forcibly and when Ravana was not there, Hanuman carried Sita back to Rama". She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanuman her comb as a token to prove that she is still alive. Hanuman takes leave of Sita. Before he leaves Lanka to go back to Rama and tell him of Sita's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lanka by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.

''Yuddha Kanda''

Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, Udaipur, 1649-53

Also known as ''Lanka Kanda'', this book describes the war between the army of Rama and the army of Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The apes named

Nala Nala (Sanskrit: नल) is a character in the ''Vana Parva'' book of the ''Mahabharata''. He was the king of Nishadha Kingdom and the son of Veerasena. Nala was known for his skill with horses and for his culinary expertise. He married prince ...

and

Nila Nila may refer to: * Nila, alternate name of Nileh Safid, a village in Iran * Baby Nila, Leela’s little sister on Sesame Street * Nila River or Bharathapuzha, is a river in the Indian state of Kerala * Pulau Nila, a small Indonesian volcanic isl ...

construct a floating bridge (known as

Rama Setu Adam's Bridge, '; ta, ஆதாம் பாலம் ' also known as Rama's Bridge or ''Rama Setu'', '; ta, ராமர் பாலம் '; sa, रामसेतु ' is a chain of natural limestone shoals, between Pamban Island, ...

) across the sea, using stones that floated on water because they had Rama's name written on them and one story also tells that they had been ''cursed'' by a sage that whatever they will throw in a water body will not sink rather it will float. The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son

Indrajit Meghanada (), also referred to by his epithet Indrajita , according to Hindu texts, was the crown prince of Lanka, who conquered Indraloka (Heaven). He is regarded as one of the greatest warriors in Hindu texts. He is a major character mentio ...

hurls a powerful weapon at Lakshmana, who is badly wounded. So Hanuman assumes a gigantic form and flies from Lanka to the Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sumeru, Hanuman was unable to identify the herb that could cure Lakshmana and so decided to bring the entire mountain back to Lanka. Eventually, the war ends when Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka. On meeting Sita, Rama said, "the dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Ravana have been wiped off, by his victory over the enemy with the assistance of Hanuman, Sugreeva and Vibhishana". However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom, Rama disowns her and asks her to seek shelter elsewhere. Sita requests Lakshmana to prepare a pile of fire for her to enter. When Lakshmana prepares a pyre, Sita prays to the god Agni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from the burning pyre, carrying Sita in his arms and restores her to Rama, testifying to her purity. Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode of ''Agni Pariksha'' varies in the versions of ''Ramayana'' by Valmiki and Tulsidas. In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas, Sita was under the protection of Agni (see

Maya Sita In some adaptations of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'', Maya Sita ( sa, माया सीता, "illusional Sita") or Chaya Sita (, "shadow Sita") is the Maya (illusion), illusionary duplicate of the goddess Sita (the heroine in the texts), who ...

) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama.

''Uttara Kanda''

Considered by several scholars to be an interpolation to the original six chapters, this kanda narrates Rama's reign of Ayodhya, the birth of Lava and Kusha, the

Ashvamedha The Ashvamedha ( sa, अश्वमेध, aśvamedha, translit-std=IAST) was a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty: a horse accomp ...

yajna, and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called '' Rama-Rajya'' (a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). After hearing from his ministers that his subjects were unhappy with the fact that their king had chosen to recouncile with a woman who had lived in the house of another man, Rama is furious as Sita had proved to everyone she was pure through the agnipariksha. In order to uphold his rank as the champion of dharma, Sita, who was pregnant was sent to exile into the forest. She finds refuge in Sage Valmiki's ashram, where she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha. Meanwhile, Rama conducts an Ashvamedha yajna (A Vedic, royal assertion of sovereignty) and in absence of Sita, places a golden statue of her. Lava and Kusha capture the horse (the vehicle of the yajna), and defeat the whole army of Ayodhya that had accompanied the horse. Later on, the brothers defeat Lakshmana, Bharata, Shatrughna, and other warriors and take Hanuman as prisoner. Finally, Rama himself arrives and defeats the two mighty brothers. Valmiki updates Sita about this development and advises both the brothers to go to Ayodhya and tell the story of Sita's sacrifice to the common folk. Both brothers arrive at Ayodhya, but face many difficulties while convincing the people. Hanuman helps both the brothers in this task. At some point, Valmiki brings Sita forward. Seeing Sita, Rama is teary-eyed and realises that Lava and Kusha are his own sons. Nagarasen (one of the ministers who instigated the hatred towards Sita) challenges Sita's character and asks her to prove her purity. Sita is overwhelmed with emotion, and decides to go back to the Earth from where she emerged. She says that, "If I am pure, this earth will open and swallow me whole." At that very moment, the earth opens up and swallows Sita. Rama rules Ayodhya for many years and finally takes Samadhi into Sarayu river along with his three brothers and leaves the world. He goes back to Vaikuntha in his Vishnu form (Lakshmana as Adishesha, Bharata as his conch, and Shatrughana as the Sudarshana Chakra) and meets Sita there, who by then had assumed her true form of Lakshmi.

Versions

As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the ''Ramayana'' survive. In particular, the ''Ramayana'' related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on ''Ramayana'' in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia,

Laos Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist ...

, Vietnam and Maldives.

India

There are diverse regional versions of the ''Ramayana'' written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents the epic without two of its kandas. During the 12th century,

Kamban Kambar or Kavichakravarthy Kamban (1180 CE–1250 CE) was an Indian Tamil poet and the author of the Ramavataram, popularly known as ''Kambaramayanam'', the Tamil version of the epic Ramayana.The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southe ...

wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil, but references to Ramayana story appear in Tamil literature as early as 3rd century CE. A

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode S ...

version,

Ranganatha Ramayanam ''Sri Ranganatha Ramayanamu'' (శ్రీ రంగనాథ రామాయణము) is one of the most famous adaptions of the Valmiki ''Ramayana'' in Telugu, a Dravidian language spoken by the people of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Telugu ...

, was written by

Gona Budda Reddy Gona Budda Reddy, also known as Ranganatha (13th century CE), was a poet and ruler living in southern India. Written work His ''Ranganatha Ramayanam'' was a pioneering work in the Telugu language on the theme of the ''Ramayana'' epic. Most sc ...

in the 13th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in

Assamese Assamese may refer to: * Assamese people, a socio-ethnolinguistic identity of north-eastern India * People of Assam, multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic and multi-religious people of Assam * Assamese language, one of the easternmost Indo-Aryan language ...

by Madhava Kandali. Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' inspired

Sri Ramacharit Manas ''Ramcharitmanas'' ( deva, श्रीरामचरितमानस, Rāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the Awadhi language, based on the ''Ramayana'', and composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623). This ...

by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of

bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as ''Tulsi-krita Ramayana''. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of the ''Ramayana'' in the 17th century.

Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Hum ...

, the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother, Hamida Banu Begum. Created around 1594, the manuscript is illustrated with scenes from the narrative. Other versions include

Krittivasi Ramayan ''Kṛttivāsī Rāmāyaṇ'',, .; also called ''Śrīrām Pãcālī'',, . composed by the fifteenth-century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha, from whom it takes its name, is a rendition of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'' into Bengali. Written in the traditional ...

, a Bengali version by Krittibas Ojha in the 15th century;

Vilanka Ramayana Bilanka Ramayana, (ବିଲଙ୍କା ରାମାୟଣ) (also Vilanka Ramayana) is a 15th-century retelling of the Indian epic poem, the ''Ramayana'', written by Sarala Dasa in Odia. The work is generally regarded as forming a supplementar ...

by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and ''

Jagamohana Ramayana Jagamohana Ramayana ( or, ଜଗମୋହନ ରାମାୟଣ) also known as Dandi Ramayana popularly across Odisha is an epic poem composed by the 15th-century poet Balarama Dasa. This work is a retelling of the Ramayana though not a direct tra ...

'' (also known as ''Dandi Ramayana'') by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both in

Odia Odia, also spelled Oriya or Odiya, may refer to: * Odia people in Odisha, India * Odia language, an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family * Odia alphabet, a writing system used for the Odia languag ...

; a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by 16th-century poet Narahari;

Adhyathmaramayanam ''Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu'' is the most popular Malayalam version of the Sanskrit Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. It is believed to have been written by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the early 17th century, and is considered to be a classic ...

, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in

Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people *Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece See also * * ...

by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi

Kuvempu Kuppali Venkatappa Puttappa (29 December 1904 – 11 November 1994), popularly known by his pen name Kuvempu, was an Indian poet, playwright, novelist and critic. He is widely regarded as the greatest Kannada poet of the 20th century. He was ...

's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada and Srimad Ramayana Kalpavrikshamu in Telugu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana who received Jnanapeeth award for this work. There is a sub-plot to the ''Ramayana'', prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali. Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki – intended as a supplementary to the original Valmiki Ramayana. In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case to Ravana's wife,

Mandodari Mandodari ( sa, मंदोदरी, , lit. "soft-bellied";) was the queen consort of Ravana, the king of Lanka, according to the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. The ''Ramayana'' describes Mandodari as beautiful, pious, and righteous. She is extoll ...

as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in the Mahakali form. The Gondi people have their own version of the Ramayana known as the ''Gond Ramayani'', derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride.

Early medieval recension from Bengal

Chance discovery of a 6th-century manuscript reveals insights into the evolution of the narrative. Importantly, the ‘Daśagrīvā Rākṣasa Charitrām Vadham’ (Slaying of the Ten-Headed Giant) manuscript contains only five kandas (chapters), and ends with the trio's triumphant return to Ayodhya. Missing from this particular recension are the ‘Balakanda’ dealing with Rama's childhood, and the ‘Uttarakanda’ – which narrates (a) Rama's divinity as an avatar of Vishnu, (b) the events leading up to the exile of Sita, (c) the death of Rama's devoted brother, Lakshmana. These are also the only two books where the Sage Valmiki appears as a character. The manuscript was discovered in 2015, from an archive compiled by the German Indologist Theodor Aufrecht.

Early references in Tamil literature

Even before Kambar wrote the Ramavataram in Tamil in the 12th century AD, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in the Sangam literature of Akanaṉūṟu,(dated 1st century BCE) and Purananuru (dated 300 BC), the twin epics of Silappatikaram (dated 2nd Century CE) and Manimekalai (cantos 5, 17 and 18), and the Alvar literature of Kulasekhara Alvar, Thirumangai Alvar,

Andal Andal ( ta, ஆண்டாள்), also known as Kothai, Nachiyar, and Godadevi, was the only female Alvar among the twelve Hindu poet-saints of South India. She was posthumously considered an avatar of the goddess Bhudevi. As with the Alv ...

and Nammalvar (dated between 5th and 10th Centuries CE). Even the songs of the Nayanmars have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva.

Buddhist version

In the Buddhist variant of the ''Ramayana'' ( Dasaratha Jataka), Dasharatha was king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for a twelve-year exile. After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned. Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā. There is no Ravana in this version, or the Rama-Ravana war. However, Ravana appears in other Buddhist literature, the Lankavatara Sutra.. In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous birth of the Buddha, and Sita as previous birth of Yasodharā(Rahula-Mata).

Jain versions

Jain versions of the ''Ramayana'' can be found in the various Jain agamas like Saṅghadāsagaṇī Vāchaka's ''

Vasudevahiṇḍī ''Vasudeva-hindi'' (IAST: Vasudevahiṇḍī, "Vasudeva's wanderings") is a Jain literature, Jain text by Sangha-dasa, probably from 5th century India. The text narrates several stories in the form of nested narrative layers. The main story is bor ...

'' (circa 4th century CE), Ravisena's

Padmapurana The ''Padma Purana'' ( sa, पद्मपुराण or पाद्मपुराण, or ) is one of the eighteen Major Puranas, a genre of texts in Hinduism. It is an encyclopedic text, named after the lotus in which creator god Brah ...

(story of Padmaja and Rama, Padmaja being the name of Sita), Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusa charitra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa's ''Vasudevahindi'' and ''Uttarapurana'' by Gunabhadara. According to

Jain cosmology Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (''loka'') and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity t ...

, every half time cycle has nine sets of Balarama, Vasudeva and prativasudeva. Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana are the eighth Baldeva, Vasudeva and prativasudeva respectively.

Padmanabh Jaini Padmanabh Shrivarma Jaini (October 23, 1923 - May 25, 2021) was an Indian born scholar of Jainism and Buddhism, living in Berkeley, California, United States. He was from a Digambar Jain family; however he was equally familiar with both the ...

notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule half the earth as half- chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the ''jinacharitra'' (lives of jinas) by Acharya Bhadrabahu (3d–4th century BCE). In the Jain epic of ''Ramayana'', it is not Rama who kills Ravana as told in the Hindu version. Perhaps this is because Rama, a liberated Jain Self in his last life, is unwilling to kill. Instead, it is Lakshmana who kills Ravana (as Vasudeva killes Prativasudeva). In the end, Rama, who led an upright life, renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and attains moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to

Hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location in the afterlife in which evil souls are subjected to punitive suffering, most often through torture, as eternal punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell ...

. However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to

Jain texts Jain literature (Sanskrit: जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the ca ...

, Ravana will be the future Tirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism. The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki's ''Ramayana''. Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain version, Rama had four chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven as Indra. Rama, after Lakshman's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in the fourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future Tirthankara of the next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be his

Ganadhara In Jainism, the term Ganadhara is used to refer the chief disciple of a ''Tirthankara''. In ''samavasarana'', the ''Tīrthankara'' sat on a throne without touching it (about two inches above it). Around, the ''Tīrthankara'' sits the ''Ganad ...

Sikh version

In the holiest

scripture the Guru Granth Sahib, there is a description of two types of ''Ramayana''. One is a spiritual ''Ramayana'' which is the actual subject of Guru Granth Sahib, in which Ravana is ego, Sita is ''budhi'' (intellect), Rama is inner Self and Laxman is ''mann'' (attention, mind). Guru Granth Sahib also believes in the existence of

Dashavatara The Dashavatara ( sa, दशावतार, ) are the ten primary avatars of Vishnu, a principal Hindus, Hindu god. Vishnu is said to descend in the form of an avatar to restore cosmic order. The word ''Dashavatara'' derives from , meaning " ...

who were kings of their times which tried their best to restore order to the world. King Rama (Ramchandra) was one of those who is not covered in Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib states: :ਹੁਕਮਿ ਉਪਾਏ ਦਸ ਅਉਤਾਰਾ॥ :हुकमि उपाए दस अउतारा॥ :By hukam (supreme command), he created his ten incarnations Rather there is no ''Ramayana'' written by any Guru. Guru Gobind Singh however is known to have written Ram Avatar in a text which is highly debated on its authenticity. Guru Gobind Singh clearly states that though all the 24 avatars incarnated for the betterment of the world, but fell prey to ego and therefore were destroyed by the supreme creator.. He also said that the almighty, invisible, all prevailing God created great numbers of Indras, Moons and Suns, Deities, Demons and sages, and also numerous saints and Brahmanas (enlightened people). But they too were caught in the noose of death (Kaal) ( transmigration of the soul).

Nepal

Besides being the site of discovery of the oldest surviving manuscript of the ''Ramayana'', Nepal gave rise to two regional variants in mid 19th – early 20th century. One, written by Bhanubhakta Acharya, is considered the first epic of Nepali language, while the other, written by

Siddhidas Mahaju Siddhidas Mahaju ( ne, सिद्धिदास महाजु) (alternative name: Siddhidas Amatya) (15 October 1867 – 29 December 1929) was a Nepalese poet and one of the Four Pillars of Nepal Bhasa. He was at the forefront in the end ...

in Nepal Bhasa was a foundational influence in the Nepal Bhasa renaissance. Ramayana written by Bhanubhakta Acharya is one of the most popular verses in Nepal. The popularization of the ''Ramayana'' and its tale, originally written in Sanskrit Language was greatly enhanced by the work of Bhanubhakta. Mainly because of his writing of Nepali Ramayana, Bhanubhakta is also called ''Aadi Kavi'' or ''The Pioneering Poet''.

Southeast Asian

Cambodia

The Cambodian version of the ''Ramayana'',

( km, រាមកេរ្ដិ៍ - ''Glory of Rama''), is the most famous story of Khmer literature since the

Kingdom of Funan Funan (; km, ហ៊្វូណន, ; vi, Phù Nam, Chữ Hán: ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''(Mandala)''—located in mainla ...

era. It adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and shows the balance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker has several differences from the original ''Ramayana'', including scenes not included in the original and emphasis on Hanuman and Sovann Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theatre known as (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and the mural and bas-reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda and

Angkor Wat Angkor Wat (; km, អង្គរវត្ត, "City/Capital of Temples") is a temple complex in Cambodia and is the largest religious monument in the world, on a site measuring . Originally constructed as a Hinduism, Hindu temple dedicated ...

Indonesia

There are several Indonesian adaptations of Ramayana, including the Javanese '' Kakawin Ramayana'' and Balinese ''Ramakavaca''. The first half of '' Kakawin Ramayana'' is similar to the original Sanskrit version, while the latter half is very different. One of the recognizable modifications is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian demigod, Semar, and his sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up the numerically significant four Punokawan or "clown servants". ''Kakawin Ramayana'' is believed to have been written in

Central Java Central Java ( id, Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta in t ...

circa 870 AD during the reign of Mpu Sindok in the Medang Kingdom. The Javanese ''Kakawin Ramayana'' is not based on Valmiki's epic, which was then the most famous version of Rama's story, but based on '' Ravanavadha'' or the "Ravana massacre", which is the sixth or seventh century poem by Indian poet Bhattikavya. '' Kakawin Ramayana'' was further developed on the neighboring island of

Bali Bali () is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nu ...

becoming the Balinese ''Ramakavaca''. The bas-reliefs of ''Ramayana'' and ''Krishnayana'' scenes are carved on balustrades of the 9th century Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta, as well as in the 14th century Penataran temple in East Java. In Indonesia, the Ramayana is a deeply ingrained aspect of the culture, especially among Javanese, Balinese and

Sundanese Sundanese may refer to: * Sundanese people * Sundanese language * Sundanese script Standard Sundanese script (''Aksara Sunda Baku'', ) is a writing system which is used by the Sundanese people. It is built based on Old Sundanese script (' ...

people, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and entertainment, for example in

wayang , also known as ( jv, ꦮꦪꦁ, translit=wayang), is a traditional form of puppet theatre play originating from the Indonesian island of Java. refers to the entire dramatic show. Sometimes the leather puppet itself is referred to as . Perfor ...

and traditional dances. The Balinese ''

kecak ''Kecak'' (pronounced ("kechak"), alternate spellings: ''kechak'' and ''ketjak''), known in Indonesian as ''tari kecakilolahhe'', is a form of Balinese Hindu dance and music drama that was developed in the 1930s in Bali, Indonesia. Since its ...

'' dance for example, retells the story of the Ramayana, with dancers playing the roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana, Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Indrajit surrounded by a troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the chorus chanting "cak". The performance also includes a fire show to describe the burning of Lanka by Hanuman. In Yogyakarta, the '' Wayang Wong'' Javanese dance also retells the Ramayana. One example of a dance production of the Ramayana in Java is the Ramayana Ballet performed on the Trimurti Prambanan open air stage, with dozens of actors and the three main prasad spires of the Prambanan Hindu temple as a backdrop.

Laos

Phra Lak Phra Lam Phra Lak Phra Ram (ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national novel of the Lao people, and is the Lao adaptation of the Dasaratha Jataka, a story narrating one of the previous life of Buddha as a Bodhisatt ...

is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of Gautama buddha.

Malaysia

The Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia incorporated element of both Hindu and Islamic mythology.

Myanmar

Yama Zatdaw is the

version of ''Ramayana''. It is also considered the unofficial national epic of

Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...

. There are nine known pieces of the Yama Zatdaw in Myanmar. The Burmese name for the story itself is Yamayana, while zatdaw refers to the acted play or being part of the jataka tales of Theravada Buddhism. This Burmese version is also heavily influenced by Ramakien (Thai version of Ramayana) which resulted from various invasions by Konbaung Dynasty kings toward the

Ayutthaya Kingdom The Ayutthaya Kingdom (; th, อยุธยา, , IAST: or , ) was a Siamese kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. The Ayutthaya Kingdom is conside ...

Philippines

The '' Maharadia Lawana'', an epic poem of the Maranao people of the Philippines, has been regarded as an indigenized version of the Ramayana since it was documented and translated into English by Professor Juan R. Francisco and Nagasura Madale in 1968. The poem, which had not been written down before Francisco and Madale's translation, narrates the adventures of the monkey-king, Maharadia Lawana, to whom the Gods have granted immortality. Francisco, an indologist from the University of the Philippines Manila, believed that the ''Ramayana'' narrative arrived in the Philippines some time between the 17th to 19th centuries, via interactions with Javanese and Malaysian cultures which traded extensively with India. By the time it was documented in the 1960s, the character names, place names, and the precise episodes and events in Maharadia Lawana's narrative already had some notable differences from those of the ''Ramayana''. Francisco believed that this was a sign of "indigenization", and suggested that some changes had already been introduced in Malaysia and Java even before the story was heard by the Maranao, and that upon reaching the Maranao homeland, the story was "further indigenized to suit Philippine cultural perspectives and orientations."

Thailand

Thailand's popular national epic '' Ramakien'' (, from , 'glory of Ram') is derived from the Hindu epic. In , Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari ( and ). Vibhishana (), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts the death of Ravana from Sita's horoscope. Ravana throws her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka (). While the main story is identical to that of ''Ramayana'', many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.

Critical edition

A critical edition of the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and 1970s, by the Oriental Institute at Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India, utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across India and the surrounding region. An English language translation of the critical edition was completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit scholar Robert P. Goldman of the University of California, Berkeley. Another English translation of Critical Edition of Valmiki Ramayana (in three volumes) with extensive footnotes was done by an Indian Scholar, economist and translator Bibek Debroy in October, 2017.

Commentaries

It is said that there are around thirty three commentaries for Ramayana. Some of the commentaries on Ramayana include Mahesvara Tirtha's ' (also known as '), Govindaraja's ' (also known as ), Sivasahaya's ', Mahadeva Yogi's ', Ramanuja's , Ahobala's and ' by Nagoji Bhatta or Ramavarma. The three commentaries ', ' and ' are known as ' (i.e. commentary trio) and are more popular.

Influence of Ramayana

One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the ''Ramayana'' has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably Kambaramayanam by Tamil poet Kambar of the 12th century, Telugu language ''Molla Ramayanam'' by poet Molla and

by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th century Kannada poet

Narahari {{Use Indian English, date=May 2019 Narahari is the surname of Vasudevan Prabhuraman, which belongs to (Raju's) surya vamsham Kshatriyas . They inhabit the Guntur, Krishna, Prakasam, Nellore and Rayalaseema districts of Andhra Pradesh, and in ...

's Torave Ramayana and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's

, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas. Ramayanic scenes have also been depicted through terracottas,

stone sculpture A stone sculpture is an object made of stone which has been shaped, usually by carving, or assembled to form a visually interesting three-dimensional shape. Stone is more durable than most alternative materials, making it especially important in ...

bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...

s and paintings. These include the stone panel at Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh depicting Bharata's meeting with Rama at Chitrakuta (3rd century CE). The ''Ramayana'' became popular in Southeast Asia during 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of the ''Ramayana'', known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora. Balinese Ramayan-Sita and Hanuman

In Indonesia, especially Java and

, ''Ramayana'' has become a popular source of artistic expression for dance drama and shadow puppet performances in the region. Sendratari Ramayana is the Javanese traditional ballet in

wayang orang ''Wayang wong'', also known as ''wayang orang'' (literally "human ''wayang''"), is a type of classical Javanese and Balinese dance theatrical performance with themes taken from episodes of the '' Ramayāna'' or '' Mahabharāta''. Performances ...

style, routinely performed in the cultural center of Yogyakarta. Large casts were part of outdoor and indoor performances presented regularly at Prambanan Trimurti temple for many years. Balinese dance dramas of ''Ramayana'' were also performed frequently in Balinese Hindu temples in Ubud and Uluwatu, where scenes from Ramayana are an integral part of

dance performances. Javanese

Wayang , also known as ( jv, ꦮꦪꦁ, translit=wayang), is a traditional form of puppet theatre play originating from the Indonesian island of Java. refers to the entire dramatic show. Sometimes the leather puppet itself is referred to as . Perfor ...

('' Wayang Kulit'' of ''purwa'' and '' Wayang Wong'') also draw from ''Ramayana'' or '' Mahabharata''. COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De strijd tussen de apenvorsten Sugriwa en Subali TMnr 3525-25

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De strijd tussen de apenvorsten Sugriwa en Subali TMnr 3525-25

''Ramayana'' has also been depicted in many paintings, notably by the Indonesian (

nese) artists such as I Gusti Dohkar (before 1938), I Dewa Poetoe Soegih, I Dewa Gedé Raka Poedja,

Ida Bagus Made Togog Ida Bagus Made Togog (1913–1989) was born into a noble Brahmana clan in the center of Batuan. Together with I Ngendon, he was one of the foremost painters from Batuan. Unlike Ngendon, Togog was not particularly interested in Western ideas. He ...

before 1948 period. Their paintings are currently in the National Museum of World Cultures collections of Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Malaysian artist

Syed Thajudeen Syed Thajudeen Shaik Abu Talib (born 23, August 1943) is a Malaysian painter. He is known for his large scale mural paintings of epic proportions set in period landscapes. A distinctive stylisation, romantic treatment of subject matter and t ...

also depicted ''Ramayana'' in 1972. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.

In popular culture

Multiple modern, English-language adaptations of the epic exist, namely Rama Chandra Series by Amish Tripathi, Ramayana Series by Ashok Banker and a mythopoetic novel, ''Asura: Tale of the Vanquished'' by Anand Neelakantan. Another Indian author, Devdutt Pattanaik, has published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana titled ''Sita'', ''The Book Of Ram'' and ''Hanuman's Ramayan''. A number of plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based upon the ''Ramayana''.

Stage

One of the best known ''Ramayana'' plays is Gopal Sharman's ''The Ramayana'', a contemporary interpretation in English, of the great epic based on the Valmiki ''Ramayana''. The play has had more than 3000 plus performances all over the world, mostly as a one-woman performance by actress Jalabala Vaidya, wife of the playwright Gopal Sharman. ''The Ramayana'' has been performed on Broadway, London's West End, United Nations Headquarters, the Smithsonian Institution among other international venue and in more than 35 cities and towns in India. Starting in 1978 and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass, ''Ramayana'' has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California. It takes the form of a colorful musical with custom costumes, sung and spoken dialog, jazz-rock orchestration and dance. This performance takes place in a large audience theater setting usually in June, in San Jose, CA. Dass has taught acting arts, costume-attire design, mask making and choreography to bring alive characters of Rama, Sita, Hanuman, Lakshmana, Shiva, Parvati, Vibhishan, Jatayu,

Surpanakha Shurpanakha (Sanskrit: शूर्पणखा, , ), also known as Meenakshi, is a ''rakshasi'' (demoness) in Hindu Mythology. Her legends are mainly narrated in the epic ''Ramayana'' and its other versions. She was the sister of Lanka's kin ...

, Ravana and his rakshasa court, Meghnadha, Kumbhakarna and the army of monkeys and demons. In the Philippines, a jazz ballet production was produced in the 1970s entitled "Rama at Sita" (Rama and Sita). The production was a result of a collaboration of four National Artists, Bienvenido Lumbera's libretto (National Artist for Literature), production design by Salvador Bernal (National Artist for Stage Design), music by Ryan Cayabyab (National Artist for Music) and choreography by Alice Reyes (National Artist for Dance).

Plays

* '' Kanchana Sita'', ''Saketham'' and ''Lankalakshmi'' – award-winning trilogy by Malayalam playwright

C. N. Sreekantan Nair C. N. Sreekantan Nair (1928–1976) was an Indian independence activist, a Malayalam writer, short story writer, playwright and screenwriter, best known for his ''Ramayana'' trilogy – ''Kanchana Sita'', ''Saketham'' and ''Lankalakshmi''. He wrot ...

* '' Lankeswaran'' – a play by the award-winning Tamil cinema actor R. S. Manohar *

Kecak ''Kecak'' (pronounced ("kechak"), alternate spellings: ''kechak'' and ''ketjak''), known in Indonesian as ''tari kecakilolahhe'', is a form of Balinese Hindu dance and music drama that was developed in the 1930s in Bali, Indonesia. Since its ...

- a

nese traditional folk dance which plays and tells the story of ''Ramayana''

Exhibitions

* Gallery Nucleus: Ramayana Exhibition -Part of the art of the book Ramayana: Divine Loophole by Sanjay Patel. * The Rama epic: Hero. Heroine, Ally, Foe by The Asian Art Museum.

Books

* '' Ramayana'' by C. Rajagopalachari * '' The Ramayana'' by

R. K. Narayan Rasipuram Krishnaswami Iyer Narayanaswami (10 October 1906 – 13 May 2001) was an Indian writer known for his work set in the fictional South Indian town of Malgudi. He was a leading author of early Indian literature in English along with Mul ...

* ''The Song of Rama'' by Vanamali * ''Ramayana'' by William Buck and S Triest * ''Ramayana: Divine Loophole'' by Sanjay Patel * ''Ramayana series by Ashok Banker. A fictional retelling of the Ramayana. It has eight books — ''Prince of Ayodhya'', ''Siege of Mithila'', ''Demons of Chitrakut'', ''Armies of Hanuman'', ''Bridge of Rama'', ''King of Ayodhya'', ''Vengeance of Ravana'' and ''Sons of Sita''. * ''Sita: An Illustrated Retelling of the Ramayana'' By Devdutt Pattanaik * ''Hanuman's Ramayan'' By Devdutt Pattanaik * ''Rama Chandra Series'' by Amish Tripathi, a fictional retelling of the Ramayana. It has our books until now — '' Ram: Scion of Ikshvaku'', '' Sita: Warrior of Mithila'', '' Raavan: Enemy of Aryavarta and The War of Lanka'' *''Asura, Tale of the Vanquished'' by Anand Neelakantan, a novel. *''The Forest of Enchantments'' by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni. *''The Crystal Guardian series'' by

Ravi Venugopal Ravi may refer to: People * Ravi (name), including a list of people and characters with the name * Ravi (composer) (1926–2012), Indian music director * Ravi (Ivar Johansen) (born 1976), Norwegian musical artist * Ravi (music director) (1926–201 ...

, a mythological fiction trilogy, written from Rama's point of view. Part 1 - ''

The Exiled Prince ''The'' () is a grammatical Article (grammar), article in English language, English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite ...

Movies

* '' Lanka Dahan'' (1917) *''Ramayana'' (1942) * '' Ram Rajya'' (1943) * '' Rambaan'' (1948) * ''

Ramayan The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages ...

'' (1954) * '' Sampoorna Ramayanam'' (1958) * '' Sampoorna Ramayana'' (1961) * ''

Lava Kusha ''Lava Kusa'' (also spelled as ''Lava Kusha'') is a 1963 Indian Hindu mythological film directed by C. S. Rao and his father C. Pullayya. The film was scripted by Sadasivabrahmam, Samudrala Sr. along with C. S. Rao and C. Pullayya. The film ...

'' (1963) * '' Sampoorna Ramayanamu'' (1971) * '' Sita Kalyanam'' (1976) * '' Kanchana Sita'' (1977) * '' Ramayana: The Legend of Prince Rama'' (1992) * '' Ramayanam'' (1996) * '' Lav Kush'' (1997) * '' Opera Jawa'' (2008) * ''

Sita Sings the Blues ''Sita Sings the Blues'' is a 2008 American animated musical romantic comedy-drama film written, directed, produced and animated by American artist Nina Paley. It intersperses events from the ''Ramayana'', light-hearted but knowledgeable disc ...

'' (2008) * '' Ramayana: The Epic'' (2010) * '' Lava Kusa: The Warrior Twins'' (2010) * ''

Raavanan Ravana (; , , ) is a rakshasa king of the island of Lanka, and the chief antagonist of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'' and its adaptations. In the ''Ramayana'', Ravana is described to be the eldest son of sage Vishrava and Rakshasa, rakshasi Kaik ...

'' (2010) * ''

Raavan Ravan, or Ravana(n), is the prime antagonist in the ancient Hindu epic ''Ramayana.'' Ravan, Raavan or Ravanan, may also refer to: Film and TV * ''Raavan'' (2022 film), Bengali action film * Ra.One, a 2011 Hindi-language film * Two Indian films si ...

'' (2010) * ''

Sri Rama Rajyam ''Sri Rama Rajyam'' () is a 2011 Indian Telugu-language Hindu mythological film directed by Bapu who co-wrote the film with Mullapudi Venkata Ramana, and produced by Yalamanchali Saibabu. The film stars Nandamuri Balakrishna, Nayanthara, Akkine ...

'' (2011) * '' Yak: The Giant King'' (2012) * ''

Monkey Enters Lanka Monkey is a common name that may refer to most mammals of the infraorder Simiiformes, also known as the simians. Traditionally, all animals in the group now known as simians are counted as monkeys except the apes, which constitutes an incomple ...

'' (2020) * ''

Adipurush ''Adipurush'' () is an upcoming Indian mythological film based on the epic ''Ramayana''. The film is written and directed by Om Raut and produced by T-Series and Retrophiles. Shot simultaneously in Hindi and Telugu languages, the film stars P ...

''(2023), upcoming film

TV series

* ''

'' – originally broadcast on

Doordarshan Doordarshan (abbreviated as DD; Hindi: , ) is an Indian public service broadcaster founded by the Government of India, owned by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and one of Prasar Bharati's two divisions. One of India's largest bro ...

, produced by Ramanand Sagar in 1987 * '' Luv Kush'' – originally broadcast on

, produced by Ramanand Sagar in 1988 * '' Jai Hanuman'' – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced and directed by Sanjay Khan * Vishnu Puran (TV series) - originally broadcast on

, produced by

B. R. Chopra Baldev Raj Chopra (22 April 1914 – 5 November 2008) was a famous Indian director and producer of Bollywood industry and television series . Best known for directing Hindi films like ''Naya Daur'' (1957), '' Sadhna'' (1958), ''Kanoon'' (1961) ...

in 2000 * ''

'' (2002) – originally broadcast on

Zee TV Zee TV (stylised as ZEE TV) is a Hindi general entertainment pay television channel in India. It was launched on 2 October 1992, as the first privately owned TV channel in the country. It is owned by Zee Entertainment Enterprises. Zee TV also ...

, produced by B.R. Chopra * ''

'' (2008) – originally broadcast on Imagine TV, produced by Sagar Enterprise * ''

'' (2012) – a remake of the 1987 series and aired on Zee TV * ''Antariksh'' (2004) – a sci-fi version of ''Ramayan''. Originally broadcast on

Star Plus StarPlus is an Indian Hindi language general entertainment pay television channel owned by Disney Star (formerly ''Star India''), a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company India. The network's programming consists of family dramas, comedies, ...

* ''

'' – series on life of Ravana based on ''Ramayana''. Originally broadcast on Zee TV * '' Sankatmochan Mahabali Hanuman'' – 2015 series based on the life of Hanuman presently broadcasting on Sony TV * '' Siya Ke Ram'' – a series on

, originally broadcast from 16 November 2015 to 4 November 2016 series based on "Ramayan", showing Ramayan from Sita's prospective * '' Ravana'' - a series on TV Derana from Sri Lanka, originally broadcast on 2019. * '' Rama Siya Ke Luv Kush'' – 2019 series based on Uttar ''Ramayan'', showing the life of children of Rama Sita, Kush and Luv broadcasting on Colors TV *''

The Legend of Hanuman ''The Legend of Hanuman ''is an Indian animated series created by Sharad Devarajan, Jeevan J. Kang and Charuvi Agrawal for Disney+ Hotstar. The series produced by Graphic India premiered on 29 January 2021. The series was renewed for a second ...

'' – A 2021 OTT animated version of the ''Ramayana'' from Hanuman's point of perspective. It depicts the 2^nd-5^th ''Kandas'' of the Mahabharata aired on

Disney+ Hotstar The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney (), is an American multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios complex in Burbank, California. Disney was originally founded on October ...

Nomenclatures

Ramayana has had a profound influence on India and Indians across the geographical and historical space. Rampur is the most common name for villages and towns across the nation particularly UP, Bihar and West Bengal. It is so common that people have been using Ram Ram as a greeting to each other.

Notes

References

Sources

* Arya, Ravi Prakash (ed.).''Ramayana of Valmiki: Sanskrit Text and English Translation.'' (English translation according to M. N. Dutt, introduction by Dr. Ramashraya Sharma, 4-volume set) Parimal Publications: Delhi, 1998, * * * * * * * * * * * * * Mahulikar, Dr. Gauri. ''Effect Of Ramayana On Various Cultures And Civilisations'', Ramayan Institute * Rabb, Kate Milner, ''National Epics'', 1896 �
see eText
in Project Gutenberg * * ( see also Wikipedia article on book) * Raghunathan, N. (transl.), ''Srimad Valmiki Ramayanam'', Vighneswara Publishing House, Madras (1981) * * * * * ''A different Song'' – Article from "The Hindu" 12 August 2005 – *
Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' illustrated with Indian miniatures from the 16th to the 19th century
', 2012, Editions Diane de Selliers,

External links

*
''The Ramayana of Valmiki''
English translation by Hari Prasad Shastri, 1952 (revised edition with interwoven glossary)
A condensed verse translation
by Romesh Chunder Dutt sponsored by the Liberty Fund *
Absolute dating of RamayanaCollection: Art of the Ramayana
from the University of Michigan Museum of Art {{DEFAULTSORT:r1 7th-century BC poems 6th-century BC poems Epic poems in Sanskrit Hindu texts Hindu poetry *

Etymology

Textual characteristics

Genre

Structure

Dating

Recensions

Characters

Synopsis

''Bāla Kāṇḍa''

''Ayodhyā Kāṇḍa''

''Aranya Kanda''

''Kishkindha Kanda''

''Sundara Kanda''

''Yuddha Kanda''

''Uttara Kanda''

Versions

India

Early medieval recension from Bengal

Early references in Tamil literature

Buddhist version

Jain versions

Sikh version

Nepal

Southeast Asian

Cambodia

Indonesia

Laos

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Thailand

Critical edition

Commentaries

Influence of Ramayana

In popular culture

Stage

Plays

Exhibitions

Books

Movies

TV series

Nomenclatures

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links